METAL CASTING AND WELDING

By
SANDESH M PRABHU
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR,
DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
SRINIVAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
VALACHIL, MANGALURU
.

MODULE 1:
INTRODUCTION &
BASIC MATERIALS USED IN FOUNDRY
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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

What is manufacturing process?

 Manufacturing process basically deals with the conversion of raw materials into a
useful material (end product or finished product).

 The steps involved in the conversion of raw materials is called processing and the
mechanism of getting end product from the raw materials is referred to as
manufacturing.

Classification of manufacturing process:

 Based on the property of the metal
 Cutting and non-cutting operations
 Primary processing and secondary processing

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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

[Link] based on the property of the metal:

a) Casting, Welding – which make use of fusibility property of the material

b) Machining, Shearing– which make use of divisibility property of the
material
c) Forming – which make use of properties like plasticity, ductility,
malleability, etc.

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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

Definition of different properties:

 Fusibility:
It is the property of the material wherein it becomes liquid on heating
and solid on cooling.
 Divisibility:
It is the property of the material which makes it divisible or to be cut into
smaller pieces under the influence of a sharp edge and external pressure.
 Ductility:
It is the ability of a material to be drawn into thin wires.
 Malleability:
It is the ability of a material to be drawn into thin sheets.
 Plasticity:
It is the ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation under
the influence of external load without fracture.
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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

Example of Ductility- Example of Malleability-

Extrusion process Rolling process

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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

Example of Plasticity- Example of Plasticity-

Forging process Bending process

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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

Example of Divisibility- Example of Divisibility-

Shear forming process Machining process

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 Introduction to Manufacturing process

2. Classification as cutting and non-cutting operations:

Cutting operation includes machining, shearing, etc.

Non-cutting operation includes casting, welding, forming, etc.

3. Classification as Primary processing and Secondary processing:

Primary processing: This step produces an item which is required for the next
operation (secondary operation). Examples include casting, ingot making etc.
Secondary processing: The product obtained in the primary processing operation
is processed further. Examples include machining, forming, etc.

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 Introduction To Casting Process

 Casting involves melting metal and pouring it

into a mould cavity whose shape resembles the
shape of the desired object, and then allowing
the molten metal to solidify in the cavity.

 The solidified part is taken out of the mould,

cleaned and finished to make it suitable for use.

 The place where this activity is carried

out is called Foundry.

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 Introduction to Casting Process
Metals and Alloys cast in foundry:

1. Ferrous castings:
2. Non-ferrous castings:
(a) Steel
 Plain or low carbon steel  Aluminium alloys
 Medium carbon steel  Copper alloys (Brass and Bronze)
 High carbon steel  Lead alloys
 Magnesium alloys
(b) Grey cast iron  Nickel alloys
 Nodular or spheroidal graphite graphite
 Tin base alloys
(SG) iron
 White cast iron
 Zinc base alloys
 Malleable iron  Titanium base alloys
 Compacted graphite (CG) iron

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 Introduction To Casting Process

Factors determining the selection of casting alloys:

1. Material properties
2. Melting properties
3. Casting properties
4. Cost
5. Availability of the metal

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 Introduction To Casting Process

1. Material properties:
 When strength and durability are the major requirements, steel and cast
iron are the best choice.
 Further when corrosion resistance is an additional factor, steel is
preferred to cast iron.
 For automobile and aeronautical applications where high strength-to-
weight ratio is desirable, aluminium is preferred, also being corrosion
resistant.

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 Introduction To Casting Process

2. Melting properties:

 Different grades of materials have different melting points.

 For example, the melting point of steel is greater than that of cast iron.
 This adds complexity in terms of choosing the type of furnace, melting
procedures, controlling solidification and more importantly the costs
involved in achieving good melting.

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 Introduction To Casting Process

3. Casting properties:

 Fluidity of molten metals- Cast iron has excellent fluidity compared to steels.
 Solidification shrinkage – Volume shrinkage of cast iron is small compared to
steels and non-ferrous metals.
 Slag formation – Non-ferrous metals with high melting points form more slag.
 Pouring temperature – Maintaining pouring temperatures for high melting point
metals costs more and also creates undesirable effects from gas absorption
leading to casting defects.

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 Introduction To Casting Process

4. Cost:
 Cast iron is typically cheaper in terms of material costs, energy and
labour required to produce the final product.
 Steel is more costly to purchase and requires more time and attention to
cast.
 Aluminium also costs comparatively less and in many cases can replace
steel.

5. Availability of the metal:

 Certain materials are easily available compared to others.
 The procurement and transportation costs for less available materials
may increase the cost of end product.

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 Steps involved in making a sand casting

Step 1
Pattern making & Core making
(only if necessary)
Step 2 Mould preparation

Step 4
Removal of casting, cleaning & inspection Step 3 Melting and pouring
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 Steps involved in making a sand casting

Step 1: Pattern making and Core making

A pattern is a replica of an object to be cast.

It is used to prepare a cavity into which the molten metal is poured.

A pattern maker prepares the pattern using wood, metal, plastic or other materials with the
help of machines and special tools.

A core may be made of sand, metal, plastics or ceramics.

It is used to create a hole or a cavity if required in a casting.

The shape of the core corresponds to the shape of the hole or cavity required.

The core is placed at the desired location in the mould cavity.

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 Steps involved in making a sand casting

Step 2 -Mould preparation

 This involves forming a cavity by packing sand around a pattern enclosed in a supporting metal
frame called a flask or mould box.
 The mould box consists of an upper part called the cope and a lower part called the drag.

 The sand used for preparing a mould contains a mixture of refractory sand like silica sand and
other constituents like additives and binders in suitable proportions to form a good mould.
 The mould is prepared either manually with hand tools or using specific machines depending on
the size of the casting.
 When the pattern is removed from the mould, an exact shaped cavity called the mould cavity
remains into which the molten metal is poured.

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Steps involved in making a sand casting

 Gating and Risers are provided at

suitable locations in the mould.
 Gating refers to the passage through
which molten metal flows and enters
the mould cavity.
 Riser refers to a reservoir of molten
metal connected to the molten cavity
to supply the additional metal so as to
compensate for losses due to
shrinkage, as the metal solidifies.
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 Steps involved in making a sand casting

Step 3- Melting and Pouring

 Metals or alloys of the required composition are melted in a furnace and the
molten metal is transferred (poured) into the mould cavity.

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Steps involved in making a sand casting

 Removal of casting, Cleaning

and Inspection:
 After the molten metal has solidified
and cooled, the rough casting is
removed from the mould, cleaned
and dressed (removing adhered sand
particles, cores, gating and risering
systems, etc.).
 The casting is checked for defects
and for dimensions.

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Steps involved in making a sand casting

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Steps involved in making a sand casting

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Steps involved in making a sand casting

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Steps involved in making a sand casting

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 Patterns

A pattern performs the following functions:

 It is used to prepare a cavity whose shape resembles the shape of the
desired cast object.
 It helps to position a core in the mould by means of projections known as
core prints that help in supporting and locating the core in the mould
cavity.
 It helps to establish the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
 In some cases, gating and risers are incorporated in the pattern itself.
Hence, a pattern supports gating and riser systems also.

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 Patterns

Materials used for pattern:

 The following factors need to be considered in selecting the pattern
material:
 Number of castings to be produced.
 Degree of accuracy and surface finish of the casting required.
 Shape and size of the casting.
 Reusability of patterns so that they will provide a repeatable dimensionally
acceptable castings.
 Type of mould material used.
 Type of moulding process adopted.
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 Patterns

Commonly used pattern materials:

1. Wood
2. Metals /Alloys
3. Plastics
4. Gypsum (plaster)
5. Wax

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 Patterns

1. Wood:

 It is widely used as a pattern material. Different types of wood like pine

wood, teak wood, mahogany, deodhar, plywood, etc. are used.
 Advantages – available in plenty, inexpensive, light in weight and can be
easily reworked.
 Disadvantages – poor strength, affected by moisture of moulding sand,
less resistant to wear and chemical actions and not suitable for long
production runs.

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 Patterns

2. Metals /Alloys:
 These include steel, cast iron, aluminium alloys, etc.

 Advantages – Strong, wear resistant, not affected dimensionally by

humidity, give good surface finish to castings and suitable for mass
production.

 Disadvantages –Heavy, costly and tend to rust during long storage

periods.

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 Patterns

3. Plastics:
 Plastic material is a compromise between wood and metal.
Thermosetting resins like phenolic resins, epoxy resin, foam resin, etc.
are used as pattern materials.
 Advantages- moderately strong, light in weight, do not absorb moisture
during storage and usage and give good surface finish to castings.
 Disadvantages:
 Costly and not suitable for thin sections.

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 Patterns

4. Gypsum (plaster):
 Gypsum is capable of producing intricate castings to close dimensional
tolerances.
 It is strong, light in weight, easily shaped and gives good surface finish. It
can be used only for small castings.

5. Wax:
 Wax is a reusable material.
 It is light in weight, gives good surface finish and is suitable for complex
shapes.
 It can be easily withdrawn from the mould by inverting the mould box
and heating it to a suitable temperature.
 It is suitable for only small castings.

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 Classification of Patterns

1. Solid pattern or Single piece pattern

2. Split pattern
3. Cope and Drag pattern
4. Match plate pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Follow-Board pattern
7. Sweep pattern
8. Gated Pattern
9. Skeleton pattern

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Classification of Patterns

1. Solid pattern or
Single piece pattern:
 It is the simplest type of pattern
made in one piece without any
joints, partings or loose pieces.
 It is used for simple shapes and
large size castings.
 During the moulding process, it
can be located either in the
cope or the drag.

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Classification of Patterns

2. Split pattern:
 It consists of pattern in two
halves joined by a dowel pin.
 It is used to prepare moulds by
hand. The split is made at
symmetric portion of the
pattern.
 The split in pattern facilitates
easy moulding.

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Classification of Patterns

3. Cope and Drag pattern:

 It is basically a split type of pattern.
 Each half is fixed to a metal plate
separately with gates, runners and
risers.
 These two plates with patterns are
used to make moulds using
machine separately to get top and
bottom mould cavities separately.
 The top mould is called the cope
and the bottom mould is called the
drag.
 This type of pattern is used to
produce a large number of
castings.
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 Classification of Patterns

4. Match plate pattern:

 A match plate is a thin flat plate on
either side of which each half of a
number of split patterns with different
shapes and sizes are attached.
 On one side of the match plate, there is
a core impression and on the other side
is the drag impression.
 The match plate is provided with runner
and gate and is placed between the
cope and the drag.
 After ramming the cope and the drag
match plate pattern UG NX.mp4.mp4 with moulding sand, the match plate is
removed, the cope and the drag are
assembled and made ready for pouring.
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 Classification of Patterns

5. Loose piece pattern:

 Patterns with certain complex shapes cannot be made in one piece as it
is difficult to withdraw from the mould.
 In such cases, two or more loose pieces are assembled to together to
form a single pattern.

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 Classification of Patterns

5. Loose piece pattern (contd.):

While withdrawing the pattern, the main body is first removed by slowly
rapping it and then the loose pieces are removed.

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Classification of Patterns

6. Follow-Board pattern:
 When the shape of the pattern is such
that it cannot be held stable in its
position, a wooden board conforming
to the contour of the pattern is used
to rest the same in correct position
and moulding is carried out.
 Such a pattern which needs a follow
board is referred to as follow board
pattern.
 Follow board holds the pattern till the
moulding is over.
 Even for moulding thin sections,
follow board is used.

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 Classification of Patterns

7. Sweep pattern:
 Sweep patterns are used for preparing large circular shaped moulds by
revolving a sweep (wooden board) attached to the spindle.
 One edge of the sweep is attached to the spindle while the other edge
has a contour of the casting desired

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 Classification of Patterns

7. Sweep pattern (contd.):

 The sweep pattern and the spindle located at the centre of the mould
are removed after the desired cavity is obtained.
 Sweep patterns are preferred for large castings with circular and
symmetrical shapes.

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 Classification of Patterns

8. Gated Pattern:
 Gated patterns are used when the parts to be cast are of simple shape
and produced in large quantities.
 A number of patterns are attached to a single runner by means of gates.
 Generally, these patterns are made of metal so that reuse is possible.

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 Classification of Patterns

9. Skeleton pattern:
 A skeleton pattern is prepared by joining pieces of wood to form an
outline of the pattern to be made.
 In other words, it is just the skeleton of the desired shape of the casting.
 The skeleton pattern is filled with moulding sand and rammed.
 A strickle board is used to remove the excess sand to give the desired
shape.
 Skeleton patterns are used to produce large castings in small quantities.

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 Classification of Patterns

Split pattern Cope & Drag pattern

Match plate pattern

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 Classification of Patterns

Loose piece pattern

Sweep pattern
Follow board pattern

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 Pattern Allowances

 Although a pattern is the replica of the object to be cast, it is slightly

enlarged in size for a few reasons.
 This increase in size of the pattern is called allowance and is essential to
all patterns.
 The following are the different pattern allowances:
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Machining allowance
3. Draft allowance
4. Distortion allowance

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 Pattern Allowances

1. Shrinkage allowance:
 This is provided to the pattern to compensate for shrinkage or
contraction (decrease in volume) of metal during solidification.
 All metals shrink or contract during solidification and hence the
dimensions of the casting become smaller than desired.
 To avoid this, the pattern must be made slightly larger in size to
compensate for this shrinkage.

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 Pattern Allowances

2. Machining allowance:
 Sometimes machining of certain surfaces of the casting needs to be
carried out either to remove certain surface irregularities or to achieve
certain dimensions.
 Hence the pattern size is made larger than required.
 This is known as machining allowance.
 During machining, this extra material gets removed.

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 Pattern Allowances

3. Draft allowance:
Draft or taper allowance is a small amount of taper added on all the
vertical long faces of the pattern to facilitate its easy removal from the
mould without damage to it.

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 Pattern Allowances

4. Distortion allowance:
 Distortion allowance is provided to those patterns from which the
castings produced may have the tendency to distort during cooling due
to the thermal stresses developed.
 For example, a casting in the form of ‘U’ shape will contract at the closed
end on cooling.
 Distortion for such castings can be eliminated by providing an allowance
and constructing the pattern initially distorted so that the casting after
cooling neutralises the initial distortion given on the pattern.

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Pattern Allowances

4. Distortion allowance:
 Distortion allowance is
provided to those patterns
from which the castings
produced may have the
tendency to distort during
cooling due to the thermal
stresses developed.
 For example, a casting in the
form of ‘U’ shape will contract
at the closed end on cooling.

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Pattern Allowances

4. Distortion allowance (contd.)

Distortion for such castings can be
eliminated by providing an
allowance and constructing the
pattern initially distorted so that
the casting after cooling neutralises
the initial distortion given on the
pattern.

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

 Sand due to its high refractoriness and also being inexpensive is the
primary and basic material used for preparing moulds.
 Sand moulding is the process of preparing a mould cavity by using a
suitable sand (usually called Base Sand) mixed with other ingredients
namely binders and additives.

 Types of Base Sand:

a) Silica sand
b) Olivine sand
c) Chromite sand
d) Zircon sand

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

Requirement (Properties) of Base Sand:

1. It should be cheap and available in plenty.
2. It should have low impurities.
3. It should have sub-angular grains which will offer better surface for clay
to coat and develop proper bonding.
4. It should have proper grain distribution.
 The grains should neither be too coarse nor fine, but a mix of these
two.
 Fine grains improve the surface finish of castings but restrict the flow
of mould gases.
 On the other hand, coarse grains cause roughness of casting surface
but allow mould gases to escape.

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

Requirement (Properties) of Base Sand (contd.):

5. It should have low expansion characteristics.
6. It should have high refractoriness. That is, it should withstand high
temperatures without fusing.
7. It should be thermally stable.
8. It should not chemically react with the molten metal.
9. It should be reusable

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

Binders:
A binder is a material used to produce cohesion or bind the sand particles
thereby imparting strength to the sand.
Types of Binders:

1. Inorganic 2. Organic
  Dextrin (made from starch)
Clay- Bentonite, Fire clay, etc.
  Molasses (a by-product of sugar
Portland cement
 Sodium silicate industry)
 Cereal binders- gelatinised
starch and gelatinised flour
 Linseed oil
 Resins (such as urea
formaldehyde and phenol
formaldehyde)
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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

Binders (contd.):
 Clay is the most commonly used binder.
 But clay activates or tends to bind sand particles only in the presence of
water (moisture).
 The amount of water to be added to clay should be based on trials.
 Too less amount of water will not cause proper binding while too much of
water makes the clay semi liquid so that it becomes unsuitable for
moulding.

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

Additives:
 Additives are generally added to develop certain new properties or to
enhance the existing properties of moulding sand.
 Their addition improves the quality of the moulding sand and hence the
casting obtained.
 Types of Additives:
a) Sea coal d) Iron oxide
b) Silica flour e) Pitch
c) Wood flour f) Graphite

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

1. Sea coal:
 It is a finely powdered bituminous coal.
 Its addition ranges from 2-8% by weight of sand.
 It prevents the burnout of sand, enhances the peeling property of castings
and improves their surface finish.

2. Silica flour:
 It is pulverised silica
 Its addition ranges from 5-10 % by weight of sand.
 It minimises sand expansion defects, resists metal penetration in the
mould walls and improves surface finish of castings.
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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

3. Wood flour:
 It is a pulverised soft wood.
 Its addition ranges from 1-2 % by weight of sand.
 It controls sand expansion, improves the flowability of sand during
moulding process and improves the collapsibility of moulds/cores.

4. Iron oxide: It develops hot strength to the moulding sand.

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

5. Pitch:
 It is a derivative of soft coal. Its addition is about 2% by weight of sand.
 It improves hot strength and improves surface finish of castings.

6. Graphite:
 It may be natural or synthetic.
 Its addition ranges from 0.2-2% by weight of sand.
 It improves the mouldability of sand mixtures and improves surface finish
of castings.

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

Desirable properties of Moulding Sand:

 Moulding sand is base sand mixed with 6-12% clay and 3-5% moisture.
 It should possess the following desirable properties:

1. It should have good flowability. It should easily flow into the mould
box and around the pattern such that the filling process is easy and
completed fast.

2. It should have good cohesiveness and adhesiveness to take the shape

of the pattern when subjected to ramming action.

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 Introduction to Sand Moulding

3. It should have good green strength, dry strength and hot strength.

4. It should have good permeability. That is, it should allow the hot gases
and moisture (given out by the molten metal) to escape.

5. It should have good collapsibility. That is, after the solidification process,
while taking out the casting, the sand should collapse easily.

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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

 Sand moulds are prepared either manually using hand tools or using
specialised machines depending on the size of the casting.
 Moulding machines:
Based on the methods of ramming, moulding machines are classified as:
a) Jolt machine
b) Squeeze machine
c) Jolt-squeeze machine
d) Sand slinger

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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Jolt machine:
 A jolt machine consists of a flat table mounted on a piston-cylinder
arrangement.
 The table can be raised or lowered by means of compressed air.
 In operation, the mould box with pattern and sand is placed on the table.
 The table is raised to a short distance and then dropped down under the
influence of gravity against a solid bed plate.

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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Jolt machine (contd.):

 This action of raising and dropping is called jolting.
 This causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and around the
pattern.

 The disadvantage of this machine is that the density and hardness of the
rammed sand at the top of the mould box is less when compared to its bottom
portion.
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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Squeeze machine:
 In this machine, the mould box with pattern and sand in it is placed on a
fixed table.
 A flat plate or a rubber diaphragm is brought in contact with the upper
surface of loose sand and the pressure is applied by a pneumatically
operated piston.
 The squeezing action of the plate causes the sand particles to get packed
tightly above and around the pattern.

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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Squeeze machine (contd.):

 Squeezing is continued till the mould attains the desired density.

 The disadvantage of this machine is that the density hardness of the

rammed sand at the bottom of the mould box is less when compared to
its top portion.
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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Jolt-squeeze machine:
 This machine combines the operating principles of both jolt and
squeeze machines resulting in uniform ramming of the sand in all
portions of the mould.
 The machine has a table actuated by two pistons in air cylinders, one
inside the other.
 One piston called the jolt piston raises and drops the table repeatedly
for a predetermined number of times while the other piston called the
squeeze piston pushes the table to squeeze the sand in the flask against
the squeeze plate.
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Preparation of Sand Moulds

Jolt-squeeze machine (contd.):

 The machine makes use of a
match plate pattern placed
between the cope and the drag
boxes.
 The cope and drag assembly
containing the match plate
pattern is placed on the table such
that the drag is above the cope.
 Sand is filled into the drag and
jolted repeatedly by operating the
jolt piston.
 After jolting, the complete
assembly is rolled over by hand.

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Preparation of Sand Moulds

Jolt-squeeze machine (contd.):

The cope is now filled with sand.

 By operating the squeeze piston,

the assembly is raised against the
squeeze plate.
 By the end of this operation, the
sand in the mould box is uniformly
packed.
 The mould box is opened and the
match plate pattern is removed.

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 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Sand Slinger:
A sand slinger is an automatic machine equipped with a unit that throws sand
rapidly and with great force into the mould box.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 73

 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Sand Slinger (contd.):

 It consists of a rigid base, sand bin, bucket elevator, belt conveyor,
ramming head (sand impeller) and a swinging arm.
 In operation, pre-mixed sand mixture from the sand bin is picked up by
the bucket elevator and is dropped on to the belt conveyor.
 The conveyor carries the sand to the ramming head, inside which there
is a rotating impeller having cup-shaped blades rotating at high speeds
(around 1800 rpm).
 The force of the rotor blades imparts velocity to the sand particles.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 74

 Preparation of Sand Moulds

Sand Slinger (contd.):

 This causes the sand particles to be thrown with a high velocity into the
mould box thereby filling and ramming the sand at the same time.
 The density of the rammed sand can be controlled by varying the speed
of the impeller.
 In the initial stages of ramming, the blades are rotated at low speeds
(around 1000-1200 rpm) in order to avoid the damage to the pattern
due to the abrasive action of the high velocity sand particles.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 75

 Types of Sand Moulds

Green Sand Mould:

 Green sand moulding is the most widely used process for casting both
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Nearly 60 % of the castings are produced from green sand moulds.
Steps involved in making green sand moulds:
 Suitable proportions of silica sand (85-92%), bentonite (6-12%), water (3-
5%) and additives are mixed together to prepare the green sand mixture.
 The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it as
shown in fig. Parting sand (dried silica sand) is sprinkled on the pattern
surface to avoid green sand mixture sticking to the pattern.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 76

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making green sand moulds (contd.):

 The drag box is filled with green sand mixture and rammed manually till
its top surface.

 The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top as shown
in fig .
 Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 77

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making green sand moulds (contd.):

 The cope box is placed on top of the drag box.
 The sprue and riser pins are placed in suitable locations.
 The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of the cope box as
shown in fig

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 78

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making green sand moulds (contd.):

 .  The sprue and riser pins are

removed from the mould.
 The cope box is lifted and placed
aside.
 The pattern in the drag box is
withdrawn by rapping it carefully
so as to avoid damage to the
mould.
 Gates are cut using hand tools to
provide passage for the flow of
molten metal.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 79

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making green sand moulds (contd.):

 The mould cavity is cleaned and

finished.
 Cores, if any, are placed in the
mould to obtain a hollow cavity
in the casting.
 The cope box is now placed on
the drag box and both are
aligned with the help of pins.
 Vent holes are made to allow the
free escape of gases from the
moulding during pouring.
 The mould is now ready for
pouring.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 80
 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Green sand moulding:

 Least expensive method

 Preferred for simple, small and medium castings.
 Suitable for mass production.
 Sand can be repeatedly used.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 81

 Types of Sand Moulds

Disadvantages of Green sand moulding

 Moulds cannot be stored for longer time periods.

 Moulds lack in permeability, strength and stability.
 Mould erosion is common.
 Castings obtained can have defects like porosity, blowholes, etc. because
of low permeability and moisture content.
 Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings are not satisfactory.
 Not suitable for large castings.
 Difficulty in casting thin and intricate shapes.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 82

 Types of Sand Moulds

Dry Sand Mould:

Dry sand moulding is similar to green sand moulding process in all aspects
except that the mould is heated or baked in an oven to a suitable
temperature in order to remove the moisture content in the mould and make
it dry before pouring the molten metal into the mould.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 83

 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Dry Sand Moulding:

 Stronger than green sand mould.
 Suitable for medium and large castings.
 Surface finish obtained is better.
 Castings obtained are defect-free.

Disadvantages of Dry Sand Moulding:

 Takes longer time since drying is involved.
 Collapsibility of the mould is poor.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 84

Types of Sand Moulds

Core Sand Mould:

 A core sand mould is a mould
prepared by assembling a
number of core blocks together.
 These core blocks are made
using core sand mixture.
 Mould box is filled with backing
sand near the walls.
 Cores are set and are packed
tightly in position against the
backing sand.
 The mould cavity is formed
along with gating and riser.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 85
 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Core Moulding:

 Intricate and complex shaped castings can be prepared.
 Heavy castings can be made.
 Surface finish obtained is good.

Disadvantages of Core Moulding:

 The mould requires preparation of core blocks which is a costly process.
 The process of setting cores is laborious and time consuming.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 86

 Types of Sand Moulds

CO2 Mould:
A CO2 mould is prepared by using sodium silicate as binder in conjunction with
carbon dioxide gas.
Steps involved in making CO2 Mould:
 The sand mixture is prepared using silica sand as the base sand with
sodium silicate (3-5 % of base sand weight) as binder. Suitable additives
are also mixed.
 The sand mixture is packed around the pattern in the cope and drag boxes
as in green sand mould.
 The sprue and riser pins are placed in suitable locations.
 Vent holes are made at different locations.
 Carbon dioxide gas is passed through the vent holes for a few seconds.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 87
 Types of Sand Moulds

CO2 Mould (contd.):

 Sodium silicate reacts with carbon dioxide gas to form silica gel that binds
the sand particles together forming a rigid and strong mould. The
chemical reaction is given by:
 Na2SiO3 + CO2 Na2 CO3 + SiO2
(sodium silicate) (silica gel)

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 88

 Types of Sand Moulds

CO2 Mould (contd.):

 The sprue and riser pins are removed and the pattern is withdrawn.
 Gates are cut in the usual manner.
 The mould cavity is finished and made ready for pouring.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 89

 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of CO2 Mould :

 The mould develops strength immediately after carbon dioxide gassing is

completed.
 Carbon dioxide does not present sand disposal problems or any odour
while mixing and pouring and hence the process is safe to human
operators.
 Very little gas evolution during pouring of molten metal.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 90

 Types of Sand Moulds

Disadvantages of CO2 Mould :

 Poor collapsibility of moulds is a major disadvantage of this process.
Certain additives can overcome this in case of ferrous metal castings but
are not suitable for non-ferrous applications.
 The sand mixture has the tendency to stick to the pattern and has
relatively poor flowability.
 There is a significant loss in the strength and hardness of moulds which
have been stored for extended periods of time.
 Over gassing and under gassing adversely affects the properties of cured
(hardened) sand.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 91
 Types of Sand Moulds

Shell Mould:
A shell mould is made from a mixture of fine silica sand and thermosetting
resin binders by the process known as Croning process.
Steps involved in making Shell Mould:
1. A metallic pattern having the shape of the desired casting is made in one
half from low carbon steel material. Pouring element is provided in the
pattern itself.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 92

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Shell Mould (contd.):

2. The metallic pattern is heated in an oven to a suitable temperature
between 180 - 250°C.
3. The pattern is taken out from the oven and sprayed with a solution of a
lubricating agent viz., silicone oil or spirit in order to prevent the shell
(formed in later stages) from sticking to the pattern.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 93

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Shell Mould (contd.):

4. The pattern is inverted and is placed over a box as shown in figure.
5. The box contains a mixture of dry silica sand or zircon sand, and a resin
binder (5 % based on sand weight).

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 94

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Shell Mould (contd.):

6. The box is now inverted so that the resin-sand mixture falls on the heated
face of the metallic pattern as shown in figure.

The resin-sand mixture gets heated up, softens and sticks to the surface of
the pattern.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 95
 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Shell Mould (contd.):

7. After a few seconds, the box is again inverted to its initial position so that
the loose resin-sand mixture falls down leaving behind a thin layer of
shell on the pattern face.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 96

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Shell Mould (contd.):

8. The pattern along with the shell is removed from the box and placed in an
oven for a few minutes which further hardens the shell and makes it rigid.
9. The shell is then stripped from the pattern with the help of ejector pins
that are initially provided on the pattern.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 97

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Shell Mould

(contd.):
10. Another shell half is prepared in a
similar manner and both the shells
are assembled together with the
help of bolts, clips or glues to form
a mould cavity.
11. The assembled part is then placed
in a box with suitable backing sand
to receive the molten metal.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 98

 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Shell Moulding:

 Requires less foundry space.
 Semi-skilled operators can handle the process easily.
 Reduced machining.
 Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance is obtained.
 Shells can be stored for extended periods of time.
Disadvantages of Shell Moulding:
 Size and weight range of castings is limited.
 Initially the metallic pattern has to be cast to the desired shape, size and finish.
 Process generates noxious fumes.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 99

 Types of Sand Moulds

Investment Mould:
This mould is prepared by using an expendable wax pattern. The process of
investment moulding is hence called lost wax process or precision casting
process.
Steps involved in making Investment Mould
1. Die and Pattern making
2. Pre-coating wax patterns
3. Investment
4. De-waxing
5. Reheating the mould
6. Melting and Pouring
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 100
 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 1: Die and Pattern making:
 A wax pattern is prepared by injecting
liquid wax into a pre-fabricated die having
approximately the same geometry of the
cavity of the desired cast part.
 Several such patterns are produced in the
similar manner and then attached to a wax
gate and sprue by means of heated tools
or melted wax to form a tree.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 101

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 1: Die and Pattern making:
 A wax pattern is prepared by injecting
liquid wax into a pre-fabricated die having
approximately the same geometry of the
cavity of the desired cast part.
 Several such patterns are produced in the
similar manner and then attached to a wax
gate and sprue by means of heated tools
or melted wax to form a tree.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 102

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 2: Pre-coating wax patterns:
 The tree is coated by dipping into
refractory slurry which is a mixture of
finely ground silica flour suspended in
ethyl silicate solution (binder).
 The coated tree is sprinkled with silica
sand and allowed to dry.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 103

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 3: Investment:
 The pre-coated tree is coated again
(referred as 'investment') by dipping in a
more viscous slurry made of refractory flour
(fused silica, alumina etc.) and liquid binders
(colloidal silica, sodium silicate etc.), and
dusted with refractory sand.
 The process of dipping and dusting is
repeated until a solid shell of desired
thickness (about 6 - 10 mm) is achieved.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 104
 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 3: Investment:
The process of dipping and dusting is repeated
until a solid shell of desired thickness (about 6 -
10 mm) is achieved.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 105

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment

Mould:
Step 4: De-waxing:
 The tree is heated in a oven to
about 300°F.
 The wax melts and drops down
leaving a mould cavity that will be
filled later by the molten metal

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 106

 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 5: Reheating the mould:
The mould is heated to about 550-1100 0 C to
remove residues of wax and at the same
time to harden the binder.
Step 6: Melting and Pouring:
The mould is placed in a flask supported with
a backing material, and the liquid metal of
the desired composition is poured under
gravity or by using air pressure depending on
the requirement.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 107
 Types of Sand Moulds

Steps involved in making Investment Mould:

Step 6: Melting and Pouring (contd.):
After the metal cools and solidifies, the
investment is broken by using chisels or
hammer and then the casting is cut from the
gating systems, cleaned and finished.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 108

Types of Sand Moulds

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 109

 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Investment Moulding:

 The process is suitable for all types of metals and alloys.
 Complex shaped parts can be produced.
 Good surface finish and close tolerances are achievable.
 Machining operation is eliminated.
 The wax can be reused.
 
Disadvantages of Investment Moulding:
 The process is expensive and involves many steps.
 The process is limited to small sized castings.
 In some cases, it becomes difficult to separate the refractory (investment) from
the casting.
 Patterns are expended and are hence to be prepared for every casting.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 110
 Types of Sand Moulds

Sweep Mould:
 This type of mould is prepared for circular, symmetrical shaped castings
like rings, wheels, etc., of very large sizes but in small quantities.
 The mould is prepared with the help of a sweep pattern, and using either
green sand, loam sand, or sodium silicate sand.
 The sweep pattern consists of a thin wooden piece with one of its edge
attached to a spindle, while the other edge has a contour depending on
the desired shape of the casting.
 

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 111

 Types of Sand Moulds

Sweep Mould (contd.)

 The spindle is mounted on a
suitable base, which supports the
sweep arm and sweep board
allowing it to rotate about a
vertical axis.
 The spindle is placed at the centre
of the mould and sand rammed

up to the drag box.

 
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 112
 Types of Sand Moulds

Sweep Mould (contd.)

 The spindle is rotated so that the
wooden piece sweeps in the
mould box generating the shape
of the required casting.
 The cope box is rammed with
green sand by placing in it the
required gates, sprue, and risers.
 Rest of the process is similar to
that in green sand moulding.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 113
 Types of Sand Moulds

Sweep Mould:
Advantages of Sweep Moulding:
 Simple and economical method for producing large symmetrical shaped
castings.
 Eliminates the need for preparing large patterns.
Disadvantages of Sweep Moulding:
 Process is restricted to only symmetrical profiles.
 It is not suitable for large quantity parts.
 It is a slow process.
 It requires a skilled operator to produce quality castings.
 
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 114
 Types of Sand Moulds

Plaster mould:
It is a mould prepared for manufacturing non-ferrous alloy castings by using
mixtures of gypsum (or plaster of Paris) as the moulding material.
Steps involved in making Plaster Mould:
 The plaster material consists of mixtures of gypsum in the range of 70-
80% and additives (like talc or magnesium oxide, lime, cement, glass
fibre, etc.) in the range of 20-30%.
 The plaster and additives are added to water and mixed to form a slurry.
 Generally a split pattern is used.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 115

 Types of Sand Moulds

Plaster mould (contd.):

 Initially the surface of the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting
compound like stearic acid dissolved in petroleum spirit in order to
prevent the sticking of the plaster to the pattern.
 The slurry is poured over the pattern and is allowed to settle down for 20-
30 minutes.
 The pattern is then rapped and stripped to obtain one half of the mould
cavity.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 116

 Types of Sand Moulds

Plaster mould (contd.):

 The other half of the mould is prepared in a similar manner.
 The mould halves are baked from 1200 – 2600 C in order to remove any
excess water and to produce a strong mould.
 The hot mould halves are quickly assembled along with the cores (if any)
and are made ready for pouring.
 After the molten metal has solidified, the plaster is broken from the cast
part.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 117

 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Plaster Moulding:

 Thin sections with complex shape can be produced.

 Castings with good surface finish and dimensional accuracy are
produced.
 Pattern details are replicated.
 Minimises residual stress and distortion on castings.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 118

 Types of Sand Moulds

Disadvantages of Plaster Moulding:

 The process is suitable for casting only low melting point metals, especially the
non-ferrous ones. This is because the maximum working temperature of plaster is
12000 C beyond which the sulphur in the gypsum reacts with iron, making it
unsuitable for casting ferrous metals.
 The long curing times do not allow the process to have high production rates.
 The water present in the plaster allows only metallic patterns to be used.
 The insulating nature of plaster results in slow cooling of the casting developing
coarse grain structure which in turn impairs mechanical properties of the cast part.
 The pattern cannot be reused so that each casting requires a separate pattern.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 119

 Types of Sand Moulds

Cement bonded Mould:

 A cement bonded mould is prepared by mixing silica sand with ordinary

Portland cement and water in suitable proportions.
 Cement is added in the range of 8-10 % and water 5-6 % based on sand
weight.
 The steps involved in mould preparation are the same as in case of green
sand mould.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 120

 Types of Sand Moulds

Advantages of Cement Moulding:

 Cement which is used as the binder is cheap and environment friendly.
 The sand system develops high strength and hardness and hence the
process is suitable for casting high temperature alloys.
 Accurate castings with good surface finish can be obtained.
Disadvantages of Cement Moulding :
 Setting/ curing time is slow.
 Large floor space is required.
 Moulding materials cannot be reused.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 121

 Cores

Definition and Need:

 A core is a pre-formed (shaped) mass of sand placed in the mould cavity
to form hollow cavities in castings.
 The core defines a volume or location in a mould cavity where the molten
metal will not flow into.
 When molten metal is poured into the mould, it surrounds the core filling
the cavity.
 After solidification, the casting is removed from the mould, with the core
still at the centre of the solidified casting.
 The core when knocked out leaves a void or cavity in the casting.
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 122
 Cores

Types of Cores:
Cores are classified based on:
1. The material from which they are made:
 Green sand core
 Dry sand core
 No-bake sand core
2. Their position and use:
 Horizontal core
 Vertical core
 Balanced core
 Drop core
 Kiss core
 Ram-up core
PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 123
 Cores

Green sand core:

 A green sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand, binder
(bentonite), moisture and additives.
 The preparation of green sand core is similar to that used for green
sand moulds.
Dry sand core:
 A dry sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand and binder.
 The binders may be sodium silicate, ester, Portland cement, rubber,
cement, linseed oil, mineral oil, natural resins (gum resin, pine resin,
coal tar resin, etc.), cereals etc.
 Thus the composition of the dry sand mould differs from that of green
sand core.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 124

 Cores

No-bake sand core:

 Synthetic resins like phenol or urea formaldehyde are used as binder for
bonding silica sand.
 Certain chemicals are used as hardeners and catalysts to bring about a
chemical reaction with the binder due to which bonding of sand grains

takes place.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 125

 Cores

Horizontal core:
 When the core is placed horizontally in the mould, it is known as
horizontal core.
 The core prints provided at both ends of the core rests in the seats
initially provided by the pattern.
 These core prints help the core to be securely and correctly positioned
in the mould cavity.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 126

 Cores

Vertical core:
 When the axis of the core is vertical, it is known as vertical core.
 The core ends are rested in the core seats in the cope and the drag.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 127

 Cores

Balanced core:
 A balanced core is one that is supported and balanced from its one end
only.
 Such cores are used when the cavity required is only to a certain depth.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 128

 Cores

Drop core (wing core):

 Drop core is used when the axis of the desired hole does not coincide
with the parting line of the mould, i.e., the core is required to be placed
either above or below the parting line.
 Figure shows a drop core placed in the mould.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 129

 Cores

Kiss core:
 In some cases, patterns cannot be provided with core prints, and hence,
no seat will be available as a rest for the core.
 In such cases, the core is held in position between the cope and the
drag by the pressure exerted from the cope on the drag.
 Such a core is called a kiss core.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 130

 Cores

Ram-up core:
 When a core is to be placed in an inaccessible position, it is difficult to
place it after ramming the mould.
 The core used in this case is called a ram-up core, and is placed in the
mould along with the pattern before ramming.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 131

 Cores

Method of making cores:

Core making consists of the following four steps:
 Core sand preparation
 Core moulding
 Core baking
 Core finishing
 
1. Core sand preparation:
 The core sand of desired type (dry sand, no-bake etc.,) and
composition, along with additives is mixed manually or using muller of
suitable type.
 A muller is a mixer type that kneads, shears, slices through and stirs the
sand by means of revolving wheels or rollers.
 A muller can be assumed to be like a wet grinder.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 132

 Cores

2. Core moulding:
 Cores are prepared manually or using machines depending on the
needs.
 Machines like jolt machine, sand slinger, core blower etc., are used for
large scale continuous production, while small sized cores for limited
production are manually made in hand filled core boxes.
 A core box is similar to a pattern that gives suitable shape to the core.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 133

 Cores

2. Core moulding (contd.):

 The prepared core sand mixture is rammed manually into the core
box. The core box is inverted over a core plate and rapped in all
directions using wooden mallet.
 The box is lifted vertically to leave the core on the core plate.
 The core along with the core plate is sent for baking.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 134

 Cores

2. Core moulding (contd.):

 The prepared core sand mixture is rammed manually into the core
box. The core box is inverted over a core plate and rapped in all
directions using wooden mallet.
 The box is lifted vertically to leave the core on the core plate.
 The core along with the core plate is sent for baking.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 135

 Cores

3. Core Baking:
 Cores are baked in ovens in order to drive away the moisture in them,
and also to harden the binder thereby imparting strength to the core.
 The temperature and duration for baking may vary from 200 - 450°F
and from a few minutes to hours respectively depending on the size of
the core and type of binder used.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 136

 Cores

4. Core finishing:
 The baked cores are finished by rubbing or filing with special tools to
remove any fins, bumps, lose sand or other sand projections from its
surface.
 The cores are also checked for dimensions and cleanliness. Finally, if
cores are made in parts, they are assembled by using suitable pastes,
pressed and dried in air before placing them in the mould cavity.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 137

 Concept of Gating
The term gating or gating system refers to all the channels or cavities
through which the molten metal flows to reach and fill the mould cavity.
Figure shows a simple gating system which consists of the following
components.
 Sprue
 Pouring cup
 Runner
 Ingates or gates

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 138

 Concept of Gating

Sprue:
 A sprue is a vertical passage way
through which the molten metal
will enter the runner.
 It is also called down sprue or
down gate.
 The sprue is tapered in cross-
section with its bigger end at the
top connected to the pouring
cup, while its smaller end is
connected to the runner.

PREPARED BY SANDESH M PRABHU 139

 Concept of Gating

Pouring cup:
 The enlarged portion (usually funnel
shaped) of the sprue at its top into
which the molten metal is poured is
called pouring cup. Refer to fig (a).
 In some cases, pouring basin is used
instead of cup. The pouring basin
has a larger opening as shown in
fig(b). It makes pouring easier,
eliminates aspiration (air pick up)
and reduces the momentum of the
liquid flowing into the mould by
settling first into it.

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 Concept of Gating

Runner:
 The runner is a horizontal
passageway through which the
molten metal flows into the gates.
 The cross-section of the runner may
be square or trapezoid, and its
length is very large compared to its
width.
Runner extension:
 It is a small portion of the runner
that extends beyond the last gate.
 It is used to trap the slag in the
initial molten metal.

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 Concept of Gating

Ingate:
 The ingate or gate is a short
passageway which carries the
molten metal from the runner to
the mould cavity.
 The gates used may vary in number
and depends on the size of the
casting and rate of solidification of
molten metal.
 A gate may be built as a part of the
pattern, or it may be cut in the
mould using gate cutter tool.

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 Concept of Gating

Functions / Requirements of Gating system:

 The primary function of a gating system is to allow clean molten metal to
flow smoothly, easily and efficiently to fill all the regions of the mould cavity.
 In order to achieve this function, the gating system must be designed such
that:
 It will allow the molten metal to flow into the mould cavity with low velocity
and with less turbulence so that the mould erosion, metal oxidation and gas
pick up are prevented.
 The cross sections of the various gating elements are designed accordingly
to serve the purpose.

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 Concept of Gating

Functions / Requirements of Gating system:

 It will regulate the rate at which the molten metal enters the mould.
 It will establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting
so that if the shrinkage occurs, it should be in the gating system and not in the
cast part.
 The gating system must promote directional solidification.
 It will provide a high casting yield. In other words, the amount of metal
solidified in the sprue, runner, gates and the riser should be less thereby making
the casting yield high.
 Incorporate a system for trapping slag and dross from the molten metal and
deliver clean molten metal into the mould cavity.
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 Concept of Gating

Types of Gates:
The common types of gates are:
 Top gate

 Bottom gate and

 Parting gate

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 Concept of Gating

Top Gate:
 A top gate is so called, because the molten
metal from the pouring basin (from the top) is
fed directly into the mould cavity.
 Top gate on one hand is advantageous,
because the hottest metal remains at the top
of the casting.
 This promotes directional solidification from
the castings towards the gate.
 Top gate serves as a riser too.
 On the other hand, use of top gate is limited,
because the turbulence of the falling metal
tends to erode portions of the mould, as well
as entraps air and metal oxides in the cavity
itself.
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 Concept of Gating

Bottom Gate:
 A bottom gate is so called, because
the molten metal enters the mould
cavity from its bottom.
 The molten metal fills the bottom
portion of the mould cavity and rises
steadily and gently up the mould
walls.
 Bottom gate minimizes turbulence
and erosion in the mould cavity, but
provides unfavourable temperature
gradients that do not promote
directional solidification.

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 Concept of Gating

Bottom Gate:
 The reason is that in bottom gating,
the molten metal at the bottom of
the mould remains hot due to the
heat of the entering molten metal.
 As the metal rises in the mould
cavity, it loses heat and the metal
which finally goes into the riser
located at the top of the casting is
comparatively cooler than the metal
near the ingate.
 Bottom gating is preferred when
side risers are used.

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 Concept of Gating

Horn Gate:
 Horn gate is a type of bottom gate
which resembles the horn of a cow.
 This type of gate is incorporated in
the pattern itself with smooth
curves and progressive change in
dimensions.
 This minimises mould erosion and
oxidation of the molten metal.

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 Concept of Gating

Horn Gate:
 This gate is however prone to jet
effect.
 This is because, the end of this gate
can produce a jet or fountain effect
during the entry of the molten metal
into the mould cavity.
 Horn gate eliminates the need of in
gate since it is a part of the pattern.

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 Concept of Gating

Parting Gate:
 Parting gate is the most commonly
used gate and is a compromise
between top and bottom gates.
 The gate is provided at the parting
line of the mould as shown in fig
 Molten metal enters the mould
cavity at the middle portion, thus
reducing the temperature gradient.

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 Concept of Risers

 When the molten metal solidifies, it shrinks in volume.

 At this stage, if it does not have a source of more molten metal to feed as
it shrinks, voids appear, leading to defects in castings.
 This problem can be overcome with the use of riser.
 A riser or feeder head is a vertical passage made in the cope to store the
liquid metal and supply (feed) the same to the casting as it solidifies.
 Molten metal flows into the mould cavity through the gating system, fills
the cavity and then rises up through the riser till its top.

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 Concept of Risers

 At this moment, the pouring of molten metal is stopped.

 Since the riser is the last portion to be fed with the molten metal, the
metal contained in the riser will be in the liquid state compared to the
metal in the gating system.
 This molten metal in the riser is fed to the casting until the casting has
completely solidified.

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 Concept of Risers

Functions / Requirements of Riser:

 The primary function of the riser is to store sufficient molten metal and
supply (feed) the same to the casting as it solidifies, thereby overcoming
the volumetric shrinkage of the casting.
 In order to achieve this function, the design of the riser must incorporate
the following requirements:
 The riser must be large enough to freeze after the casting. The
ratio of (volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of
the casting.
 However, when this condition does not meet, the metal in the riser can be
kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials
in the risers.

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 Concept of Risers

 This helps continuous feeding of liquid metal to the solidifying casting so

that shrinkage cavities are eliminated.

 The riser must be kept open to the atmosphere and placed in such a
location that it maintains a positive pressure of liquid metal on all
portions of the casting it is intended to feed.
 A riser should be located in a position that will cause directional
solidification from the casting towards it. Without directional
solidification, liquid metal in the casting may be cut off from the riser,
resulting in defect.

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 Concept of Risers

 The spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively

calculating the feeding distance of the risers.
 The shape of the riser is another primary requirement in risering system.
 Cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical
risers, although considered as best, are difficult in moulding.
 To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be
shaped as hemisphere.

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 Concept of Risers

 The spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively

calculating the feeding distance of the risers.
 The shape of the riser is another primary requirement in risering system.
 Cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical
risers, although considered as best, are difficult in moulding.
 To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be
shaped as hemisphere.

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 Concept of Risers

Types of Risers:
There are two types of risers – Open
riser and Blind riser

Open Riser:
 In this type, the top surface of the
riser will be open to the
atmosphere.
 An open riser is usually placed on
the top of the casting as shown in
figure or at the parting surface of
the mould.
 Gravity and atmospheric pressure
causes the liquid metal in the riser
to flow into the solidifying casting.

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 Concept of Risers

Open Riser:

 But, when a certain thickness of

the liquid metal on the top
surface of the riser solidifies, the
atmospheric pressure will no
longer be effective in feeding
the molten metal.
 However, open riser is
commonly used in foundries.

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 Concept of Risers

Blind Riser:
 A blind riser, is one which is completely
enclosed in the mould and not exposed
to the atmosphere.
 Due to this, the metal in the riser cools
slower and thus stay liquid longer
promoting directional solidification.
 In blind risers, the liquid metal is fed to
the solidifying casting under the force
of gravity alone. Hence, when
shrinkage occurs in the blind riser, a
partial vacuum is developed in the
riser. Due to this vacuum, the pressure
due to gravity is also reduced.

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 Concept of Risers

Blind Riser:
 For efficient functioning of the blind
riser, it is essential to make a
provision to keep the riser open to
the atmosphere enable atmospheric
pressure to exert feeding pressure
on the liquid metal.
 This is achieved by inserting a core
of permeable sand at the top of the
blind riser as shown in figure
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