Chapter 1

~ The Atomic Theory and Moles ~

Miss Faridah Bt. Abu Bakar

[Link]
 Classification of Matter
• The smallest object that retain the properties of an
Atom element. Composed of electrons and a nucleus
(containing protons and neutrons).
Elements & Compound
Separation by

Physical method

Separation by chemical method

 The Structure of the Atom
Electrically neutral
particles having a mass
slightly greater than that
of proton

Positively charged
particles in the nucleus
Electron

Nucleus

Proton

Neutron
 Atomic Number, Mass Number
and Isotopes
All atom can be identified by the number of protons and neutron they contain

Mass Number (A)

The total number of neutrons and protons
present in the nucleus of an atom of an element

Atomic Number (Z)

A
Z X
The number of proton in the nucleus of each
atom of an element

• Atomic Number (Z) = proton (p)

• Proton (p) = Electron (e)
The atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in the atom
 1 2 3
1 H 1 H 1 H
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Isotopes
Molecule and Ion
Loosing electron Accepting electron

Example Example
Average Atomic Mass
6 Atomic Number
C
12.01 Atomic Mass
Example

The atomic masses of copper of its two stable isotopes are as below:
63 65
29 Cu (69.09 %) 29 Cu (30.91 %)
62.93 amu 64.9278 amu

Calculate the average atomic mass of copper.

Answer

Percent are converted to fraction

69.09/100 = 0.6909 30.91/100 = 0.3091

[ (0.6090) (62.93 amu) ] + [ (0.3091) (64.9278) ] = 63.55 amu

Avogadro’s Number & the Molar Mass
of an Element
m/M Number of nNA Number of
Mass of moles of atoms of
element (m) element (n) element (N)
nM N/NA
 Avogadro’s Number (NA) = 6.0221367 X 1023

Where…
1 mole carbon-12 atom = 6.0221367 X 1023 carbon-12 atom

1 g = 6.0221367 X 1023 amu

1 amu = 1.661 X 10-24 g
Number of mole

Number of mole = mass of X (g)

Relative Molar Mass of X (gmol-1)

Example

How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?

4.003 g He 1 mole He
1 g He 0.2498 mole He
6.46 g He (0.2498) X (6.46)
= 1.61 mol He
Example

Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is

present in coal. When coal is burned,
sulfur is converted to sulfur dioxide and
eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to
acid rain phenomenon. How many atoms
are in 16.3 g of sulfur?

Where 1 mol of S = 32.07 g S

Answer

32.07 g 1 mol
16.3g [(1/32.07) X (16.3)]
= 0.5082 mol

1 mol NA (6.022 X 1023) S atom

0.5082 mol 3.060 X 1023 S atoms
 Molecular Mass

Example

H2O = 2 (atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O

= 2 (1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu

= 18.02 amu
Percent Composition of Compounds

Mass spectrometer
n X molar mass of element
Molar mass of compound X 100 %
Procedure for calculating the empirical formular of
a compound from it’s percent composition

Empirical
Formular
Example

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy

liquid used in detergents, fertilizers, tooth-paste
and carbonated beverages for a “tangy” flavor.
Calculate the percent composition by mass of H,
P and O in this compound.

Atomic mass

H = 1.008 P = 30.97 O= 16.00

Answer

The molar mass of H2PO4 is 97.99 g. The percent by mass

of each of the elements are as follows;

% H = 3 (1.008 g) H X 100 % = 3.086 %

97.99 g H2PO4

%P= 30.97 g P
X 100 % = 31.61 %
97.99 g H2PO4
X 100 % = 65.31 %
% O = 4 (16.00 g) O
97.99 g H2PO4
Example

Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is a principle mineral of copper.

Calculate the number of kilograms of Cu in 3.71 X 103 kg
of chalcopyrite.

Relative Molecular mass

Cu = 63.55
Fe = 55.85
S = 32.07
Answer

Calculate the molar mass

Cu = 63.55 g

CuFeS2 = (63.55) + (55.85) + [2(32.07)]

= 183.5 g

Therefore

% Cu = molar mass of Cu X 100 %

molar mass of CuFeS2
% Cu = molar mass of Cu X 100%
molar mass of CuFeS2

= 63.55 g X 100%
183.5 g

= 34.63%

Therefore

Mass of Cu in CuFeS2 = [(34.63/100) X (3.71 X 103)]

= 1.28 X 103 kg
 Chemical Formula
Chemist used the chemical formula to express the composition of
molecules and ionic composition in terms of chemical symbol
Example

Benzene

Empirical Formula : CH

Molecular Formula : C6 H 6

Structural Formula :
Example

Write the empirical formula for glucose (C6H12O6)

Answer

From the molecular formula there are 6 carbon atoms, 12

hydrogen atom and 6 oxygen atom. Dividing the subscript by 6,
we will obtain the formula CH2O. Empirical Formula

Eventhough we might divide the subscript by 3 and gain C2H4O2,

but this is not the empirical formula because its subscript are not
in the smallest whole-number ratio
 Determination of Empirical and
Molecular Formulas
•The formula calculated from percent composition by
mass is always the empirical formula because the
coefficients in the formula are always reduced to the
smallest whole number.

•Therefore, to calculate the actual molecular formula we

must know the approximate molar mass of the compound
in the addition to its empirical formula.
 Divided by molar mass

Multiply by stoichiometric ratio

Multiply by molar mass

Example

A sample of a compound contains 1.52 g of nitrogen (N)

and 3.47 g of oxygen (O). The molar mass of this
compound is between 90 g to 95 g. Determine the
molecular formula of the compound

Relative Molecular Mass

N = 14.01 g
O = 16.00 g
Answer

14.01 g N 1 mole of N
1.00 g N [(1/14.01)]
= 0.07 mole of N

Therefore

1.52 g N 0.07 X 1.52

= 0.106 mol of N
O

16.00 g O 1 mole of O
1gO (1/16.00)
= 0.06 mole of O

Therefore

3.47 g O 0.06 X 3.47

= 0.208 mole of O

We may write the formula as

All the subscript will be divided by the
= N0.106O0.208 smallest number to gain the smallest
whole-number ratio
= NO2
From the empirical formula, we may calculate the empirical
molecular mass

NO2

= 14.01 g + [2(16.00)]
= 46.01 g

Given in the question that the molar mass of the compound is

around 90 to 95 g. Therefore the molecular formula is

Molar mass = 90 g
Empirical molar mass 46.01 g

=2

The molecular formula = (NO2 ) 2

 Formula of Ionic Compounds
•The formula of ionic compounds are usually the same as their
empirical formulas because ionic compounds do not consist of
discrete molecular units.

•Basically, in order for ionic compounds to be electrically neutral,

the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula
unit must be zero.

•The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on

the anion and the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to
the charge on the cation
Potassium Bromide

The potassium cation K+ and the bromine anion Br-

combine to form the ionic compound potassium
bromide. The sum of the charges is [(+1)+(-1)] = 0.
Therefore, no subscript is necessary.

The formula is KBr

Zinc Iodide

The zinc cation Zn2+ and the iodine anion I- combine to

form zinc iodide. The sum of charges of 1 Zn2+ ion and
one I- ion is as below

[(+2) + (-1)] = +1

Therefore to make the charges add up to zero, we

multiply the -1 charge of the anion by 2 and add the
subscript “2” to the symbol for Iodine.

The formula for zinc iodide is ZnI2

Aluminum Oxide

The cation is Al3+ and oxygen anion O2- . The following diagram helps
to determine the subscript for the compound formed by the cation
an the anion
Al3+ O2-

Al2O3

The sum of the charge is [2(+3)] + [3(-2)] = 0. Therefore the

formula for Aluminum oxide is Al2O3
Oxidation State (Oxidation Number)
For element and monoatomic ion, the oxidation number is the
same as the charge.

There are rules that have to be followed as below.

Rule 1

The oxidation number of the atom in an element is zero.

For example, in the reaction below

3 CuCl2 + 2 Al 2 AlCl3 + 3 Cu

Oxidation number = 0
Rule 2

The oxidation number in the monoatomic ion equals to the charge

on the ion.

The Cu2+ and Cl- in copper (II) chloride have oxidation number of
2+ and -1 respectively.

Cu2+ Cl- Cl-

3 CuCl2 + 2 Al 2 AlCl3 + 3 Cu

Therefore: [(+2) + (-1) + (-1)] = 0

Rule 3

The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 except for peroxide which is -1

[Link] oxide, Na2O contains O2- ions. Therefore the oxidation

number will be -2.

[Link] oxide, MgO contains O2- ions. Therefore the oxidation

number will be -2.

[Link] (III) oxide, Fe2O3 contains O2- ions. Therefore the oxidation
number will be -2.

[Link] peroxide, Cs2O2 contains O22- ions. Therefore the oxidation

number will be -1.
Rule 4

The oxidation number of Hydrogen is +1 in most of its compound

(except in binary compound with metal such as NaH, where the
oxidation number of -1.

[Link] acid, HCl contains H+ ions. Here the oxidation

number is +1.

[Link] acid, H2SO4 contains H+ ions. Here the oxidation number

is +1.

[Link] hydrate, CaH2 contains H- ions. Here the oxidation

number is -1.
Rule 5

The oxidation number of Fluorine is always -1. All other halogens (Cl,
Br, I) have the oxidation number of -1 in binary compound with some
exception.

[Link] Floride, CaF2 contains F- ions. Here the oxidation number

of F is equal to -1.

[Link] (II) bromide, NiBr2 contains Br- ions. Here the oxidation
number of Br is equal to -1.
Rule 6

The sum of oxidation numbers of the atom in a compound is zero.

The sum of oxidation number of atom in the polyatomic ion equals

to the charge on the ion
+1 +2 +3 -3 -2 -1
Chemical Reaction and Chemical
Equations

• The substance formed as a result of a

Product chemical reaction
 Balancing Chemical Equations
In general, we can balance a chemical equation by following step:

1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct

formulas on the left and the right side of the equation
respectively

Reactant Product

2. Begin balancing the equation by trying different coefficient to

make the number of atoms of each element the same on both
sides of the equation.

Note that we can change the coefficient (the numbers

preceding the formulas) but not the subscript as it will
change the identity of the substance!
3. Look for elements that appear only once on each side of the
equation with the same number of atoms on each side. The
formulas containing these elements must have the same
coefficient.

4. Next, look for elements that appear only once on each side of
the equation but in unequal numbers of atom. Balance these
elements.

5. Finally, balance the elements that appear in two or more

formulas on the same side of the equation.
Example

When potassium chlorate was heated , it will produce oxygen and

potassium chloride. The chemical equation for this reaction can be
written as follows.
The chemical formula for each compound as as follows

Oxygen : O2
Potassium Chloride : KCl
Potassium Chlorate : KClO3

Therefore…
Reactant Product
KClO3 O2 + KCl
2 KClO3 3 O2 + 2 KCl
1. Because there are 3 O atoms on the left and 2 on the right
of the equation, we can balance it by placing a 2 in front of
KClO3 and a 3 in front of O2

2. Finally, the K and Cl atom is balanced by placing 2 in front of

the KCl

Reactant Product
K (2) K (2)
Cl (2) Cl (2)
O (6) O (6)
Example

When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of

aluminum oxide (Al2O3) forms on its surface. Write a balance equation
for the formation of Al2O3.

The chemical formula for each compound are as follows;

Aluminum : Al
Air : O2
Aluminum Oxide : Al2O3

Therefore… Reactant Product

Al + O2 Al2O3
 3
2 2 Al + O2
2 Al2O3

4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3

Reactant Product
Al (4) Al (4)
O (6) O (6)
Amount of Reactant & Product
Example

All alkali metal react with water to produce hydrogen gas

and the corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. A typical
reaction is between lithium and water

2 Li + 2 H2O 2 LiOH + H2

(a) How many moles of H2 will be formed by the complete

reaction of 6.23 moles of Li with water? (b) How many
grams of H2 will be formed by the complete reaction of
80.57 g of Li in the water
Answer (a)

From the given chemical equation

2 mol of Li 1 mol of H2

Therefore..

1 mol of Li 0.5 mol of H2

6.23 mol of Li (0.5 X 6.23) mol of H2
= 3.115 mol of H2
Answer (b)

6.941 g of Li 1 mol of Li
1 g of Li 0.144071459 mol of Li

Therefore

80.57 g of Li (0.144071459 X 80.57)

= 11.60783749 mol of Li

From the equation

1 mol of Li 0.5 mol of H2

11.60783749 mol of Li 5.803918744 mol of H2
1 mol of H2 (2 x 1.008) g of H2
= 2.016 g of H2

Therefore

5.803918744 mol of H2 (2.016 X 5.803918744) g of H2

= 11.70 g of H2
Types of Stoichiometric Calculation
Limiting Reagent
Example

Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon

dioxide

2 NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2.

(a)Which of the two reactant is the limiting reagent?

(b)Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.
(c)How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
Answer (a)

2 NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O

Calculate the number of moles for NH3 and CO2

mass
Number of mole of NH3 = relative molar mass

637.2
= 17.034

= 37.4075 moles
Number of mole of CO2 =
mass
relative molar mass
=
1142
44.01
= 25.9486 moles

Therefore….

1 mole of NH3 0.5 mole of (NH2)2CO

37.4075 moles of NH3 (0.5 X 37.4075)
= 18.7037 moles of (NH2)2CO

1 mole of CO2 1 mole of (NH2)2CO

25.9486 mole of CO2 (1 X 25.9486)
= 25.9486 moles of (NH2)2CO
From the calculation we may see that the NH3 is the limiting
reagent because it produce a smaller amount of (NH2)2CO.
Answer (b)

Since the ammonia is the limiting reagent, therefore, the number

amount of (NH2)2CO produce are highly dependent on it.

From the calculation 18.7037 moles of (NH2)2CO will be produce.

Therefore….
 mass
Number of mole =
relative molar mass

18.7037 mole = mass

60.062

Mass = 18.7037 X 60.062

= 1123.3816 g
Answer (c)

Since only 18.7037 moles of (NH2)2CO were produce during the

reaction, therefore the number of mole of CO2 used in the reaction
is 18.7037 moles .

Therefore…
mass
Number of mole CO2 = relative molar mass

mass
18.7037 = 44.01

mass = 823.1498 g
Given in the question, the initial amount of CO2 used in the
reaction is 1142 g.

From the previous calculation, the final mass of CO2 used in the
reaction is 823.1498 g.

Therefore, the mass of excess CO2 is

= (1142 – 823.1498)g
= 318.8502 g of excess CO2
Reaction Yield

actual yield
x 100%
theoretical yield
Example

Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is

used in rocket, aircraft, jet engines and bicycle frames. It is prepared
by the reaction of titanium (IV) chloride with molten magnesium
between 950 °C and 1150 °C.

TiCl4 + 2 Mg Ti + 2 MgCl2

In a certain industrial operation 3.54 X 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with

1.13 X 107 g of Mg.

(a)Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams

(b)Calculate the percent yield if 7.91 X 106 g of Ti are actually
obtained.
Answer (a)
mass
Number of mole of TiCl4 =
relative molar mass
3.54 x 107
= 346.2

= 1.02 x 105 moles of TiCl4

mass
relative molar mass
Number of mole of Mg =
1.13 x 107
24.31
=

= 4.65 x 105 moles of Mg

1 mole TiCl4 1 mole Ti
1.02 x 105 moles of TiCl4 1.02 x 105 moles of Ti

2 moles of Mg 1 mole of Ti
1 mole of Mg 0.5 moles of Ti
4.65 x 105 moles of Mg 2.33 x 105 moles of Ti

Therefore the limiting reactant is TiCl4

Mass of Ti produce mass

relative molar mass
Number of mole of Ti
mass
1.02 x 105 moles of Ti 204.4

Mass of Ti 2.08 X 107 g of Ti

Answer (b)

% of yield = actual yield

x 100%
theoretical yield

= 7.91 x 106
7
x 100%
2.08 x 10

= 38.03 %
Solution & Their Concentrations
Molar concentration (Cx)
no. mol solute
Molar concentration (Cx) =
no. L solution

OR
no. mmol solute
no. mL solution

Analytical Molarity

~ The total number of moles of a solute in 1 L of solution (or the

total number of milimoles in 1 mL).
Example

Calculate the molar concentration of ethanol in an aqueous solution

that contains 2.30 g of C2H5OH (46.07 g/mol) in 3.50 L of solution.

Answer

The number of mole of C2H5OH

mass
=
RMM

2.30
= 46.07

= 0.04992 mol C2H5OH

Molarity
no. of mole of solute
C C H OH =
2 5
no. of L of solution

0.04992
=
3.50

= 0.014 M
Example

Describe the preparation of 2.00 L of 0.108 M of BaCl2 from

BaCl2· 2 H2O (244.3 g/mol).

Answer
number of mole
Molarity = number of L

number of mole
0.108 M = 2L

Number of mole = 0.216 mole of BaCl2· 2 H2O

Therfore…
mass
Number of mole =
RMM

0.216 mole = mass

244.3

mass = 52.8g of BaCl2· 2 H2O

The preparation..

Dissolve 52.8 g of BaCl2· 2 H2O in water and dilute to 2 L

Dilution of Solution

Because molarity is define as moles of solute in one liter of

solution, we see that the number of moles of solute is given
by
mole of solute
x volume of solution (in liters)  moles of solute
liters of solution

M V
 mole of solute
x volume of solution (in liters)  moles of solute
liters of solution

The equation above can also be written as

MV = moles of solute

Because all the solute comes from the original stock

solution, therefore we may conclude that

M1V1 = M2V2

Moles of Moles of
solute before solute after
dilution dilution
Example

What is the volume of H2SO4 needed to prepair 5.00 X 102 mL

of a 1.75 M H2SO4 solution, starting with an 8.61 M stock of
H2SO4

Answer

M1= 8.61 M V1 = ????

M2= 1.75 M V2 = 5.00 X 102

M1V1 = M2V2

(8.61) (V) = (1.75) (5.00 X 102 )

8.61 V = 875
Acid-Base Titration
Example

In a titration experiment, a student finds that 23.48 mL of

NaOH solution are needed to neutralized 0.5468 g of
KHC8H4O4. What is the concentration (in molarity) of NaOH
ssolution?
Need to calculate

mol of NaOH
molarity of NaOH 
L of solution

Need to calculate Given

The reaction will be as follows

KHC8H4O4 + NaOH KNaC8H4O4 + H2O

From the equation, 1 mole of KHC8H4O4 neutralized 1 mole of

NaOH
mass
Number of mole of KHC8H4O4 =
RMM
0.5468
= 204

= 2.68 X 10-3 mol KHC8H4O4

Since 1 mole of KHC8H4O4 = 1 mol of NaOH…

Therefore…

2.68 X 10-3 mol KHC8H4O4 = 2.68 X 10-3 mol NaOH

no of mole
Molarity of NaOH = L solution

2.68 X 10-3 mol NaOH

= 0.02348 L

= 0.1141 mol NaOH/L

= 0.1141 M
Example

How many milimeters (mL) of a 0.610 M NaOH solution are

needed to neutralized 20.0 mL of a 0.245 M H2SO4 solution?

Answer

The chemical equation for the reaction are as follows

2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

From the equation, 1 mole of H2SO4 is ≈ 2 mole NaOH.

The number of mole for H2SO4 is

mole
molarity 
L

The number of mole of H2SO4 = 0.245 X 0.02

= 4.9 X 10-3 mol H2SO4

Therefore, the number of mole of NaOH is

= (4.9 X 10-3 mol) X 2

= 9.8 X 10-3 mol of NaOH
Molarity of NaOH

mole
molarity 
L
3
9.80 x 10
0.610 
L
 0.01606 L NaOH
 16.1 mL NaOH
Percent concentration

The 3 common methods are:

weight solute
weight percent ( w / w)  x 100%
weight solution

volume solute
volume percent (v / v)  x 100%
volume solution

weight solute ( g )
weight / volume percent ( w / v)  x 100%
volume solution (mL)
Part per Million and Parts per Billion

For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm) is a

convenient way to express concentration:

mass of solute ( g )
C ppm  x 106 ppm
mass of solution ( g )

• Where Cppm is the concentration in parts per million.

• For even more dilute solutions, 109 ppb is employed to give

the result in parts per billion (ppb)
A handy rule in calculating parts per million is to remember
that for dilute aqueous solution whose densities are
approximately 1.00 g/mL therefore 1 ppm is equal to 1 mg/L.

mass of solute (mg )

C ppm 
mass of solution ( L)

mass of solute ( g )
C ppb  x 109
mass of solution ( g )
Mole Fraction

The mole fraction of a component in a solution is simply the number of

moles of that component divided by the total moles of all the components.
The mole fraction of component i is written as Xi.

For a solution consisting of nA moles of component A, nB moles of

component B, nC moles of component C, etc., then the mole fraction of
component A is given by
nA
XA 
n A  nB  nc

Mole fractions are strictly additive. The sum of the mole fractions of all
components is equal to one.