The Human Visual System
The Eye
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
In this section . . .
Anatomy of human eye
Image formation by human eye
Method of light detection
Retinal processing
Eye optical defects and diseases
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Human Visual System
Exposure
Image formation Detection Processing
Control
•Cornea •Iris/pupil •Retina •Brain
•Lens •Photoreceptor •Rods
sensitivity •Cones
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Human Eye
Ciliary Muscle
Sclera Ear side (Temporal)
Iris Vitreous Humor
Fovea
Pupil Eyelens
Retina
Optic Nerve
Cornea
Nose side (Nasal)
Aqueous Humor
Suspensory ligament Choroid
Human eye is a complete imaging system.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Image Formation
Object Image
The curved surfaces of the eye focus the
image onto the back surface of the eye.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Cornea
The outer wall of the
eye is formed by the
hard, white sclera.
Sclera
Cornea is the clear
Cornea
portion of the sclera.
2/3 of the refraction
takes place at the
cornea.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Iris and Pupil
Iris Colored iris controls
the size of the
opening (pupil)
Pupil where the light
enters.
Pupil determines the
amount of light, like
the aperture of a
camera.
Iris open Iris closed
Dilated pupil Constricted pupil
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Lens
Ciliary muscle
Eye lens is made of
transparent fibers in a
Lens
clear membrane.
Suspended by suspensory
ligament.
Suspensory
Ligament
Used as a fine focusing
mechanism by the eye;
Transparent provides 1/3 of eye’s total
Fibers refracting power.
Non-uniform index of
refraction.
Cross section of the eye lens
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Accommodation
Distant object The suspensory ligaments
attach the lens to the ciliary
muscle.
When the muscle contracts,
the lens bulges out in the
Relaxed muscle back, decreasing its focal
Taut ligaments
Near object length.
The process by which the
lens changes shape to focus
is called accommodation.
Contracted muscle
Slack ligaments
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Aqueous Humor and Vitreous Humor
Transparent
Vitreous Humor gelatinous liquid
filling the eye.
Provides nutrients
to the cornea and
eye lens.
Also helps maintain
Aqueous Humor
the eyeball shape
with its pressure.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Retina
Retina is the photosensitive
“detector” for the eye.
Two types of receptors in the
Retina
retina: rods for low light level,
and cones for color.
Fovea
Located at the center of the
retina, fovea contains a greater
concentration of cones.
Optic Nerve Signals from the receptors
leave through the optic nerve to
the brain.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Plexiform Layer
The retina is made of three
layers:
Plexiform layer is a network of
Fovea nerves which carry the signals
from the photo receptors.
Photo receptors
Photo receptors.
Choroid provides nourishment
Light
to the receptors, as well as
Plexiform Layer absorb any light that didn’t
get absorbed by the photo
receptors, like a antihalation
backing in film.
Optic Nerve Choroid
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Rods and Cones
Synaptic endings
Cell nucleus
Inner segments
Outer segments
Rod Cone
Highly sensitive to low light Sensitive to high light level
level or scotopic conditions. or photopic conditions.
Black and white. Three types of cones
Dispersed in the periphery responsible for color vision.
of the retina. Concentrated in the fovea.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Adaptation
Why can’t you see
Photopic (cones) immediately after you enter a
movie theater from daylight?
Threshold of detection
The threshold of detection
(log scale)
Scotopic (rods)
changes with overall light
level.
The switch is quite gradual,
until the sensitivities of cones
and rods cross over at about
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 7 minutes in the dark.
Time in dark (minutes)
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Distribution of Photoreceptors
Visual Axis
Temporal Nasal Cones are concentrated
in the fovea.
80 º 80º
60 º 60 º Rods predominate the
40 º
40 º
20 º periphery.
Number of receptors per mm2
20 º Blind spot
0º
There is a blind spot
160
140 Rods
where there are no
120 photoreceptors, at the
100 point where the nerves
80
60 exit the eye (optic
40 Cones nerve).
20
60 º 40 º 20 º 0 º 20 º 40 º 60 º 80 º
Angle
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Human Vision
Human Cone Response to Color
three cone types (S,I,L) correspond to B,G,R
S I L
Relative response
400 460 490 500 530 600 650 700
Wavelength (nm)
Blue Cyan Green Red
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Retina
Light Cones
Rods
To optic nerve Bipolar
cells
Amicrine
cells
Ganglion
cells
Horizontal
The retina is made of network of nerve cells. cells
The network works together to reduce the amount of information
in a process called lateral inhibition.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Eye Defects
Object at infinity
Image focuses on the
retina for a normal eye.
Normal
Distant objects look
blurry for a myopic (near
sighted) eye.
Myopic
Near objects look blurry
for a hyperopic (far
Hyperopic sighted) eye.
Eyes at relax state.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Myopia - Near sightedness
Far object Distant objects look
blurry because the eye
Myopic eye relaxed
Blurry
cannot relax any farther
so that the image is
Near object focused before the
Myopic eye relaxed retina.
In focus
Near object in focus
Far object
without accommodation.
Myopia corrected
Corrected with a
with a negative lens negative lens.
The virtual image from the diverging lens appears to be closer.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Hyperopia - Far sightedness
Far object Near objects look
Hyperopic eye blurry because the eye
Partially accommodated cannot accommodate
In focus enough for near
Near object
objects.
Hyperopic eye
Fully accommodated
Far object in focus.
Blurry Corrected with a
Near object
positive lens.
Hyperopia
corrected with a
positive lens
Light from the converging lens looks as though it is coming from the distance.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Contact Lens
Contact lens Contact lens is an
Cornea
alternative to
corrective lenses.
Changes the
curvature of the
cornea by adhering
to the surface with
some fluid.
Fluid
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Presbyopia - “Old eye”
Concave for distance Lens hardens with age.
correction (if needed)
Eye cannot adequately
Convex for near object accommodate near
correction
objects.
Far objects Bifocals (lens with two
focal lengths) contains a
concave lens for distance
(if needed) and a convex
lens for near objects.
Near objects magnified
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Astigmatism
The cornea is not
Cornea spherical; Focal length
different from one
plane to a
Object
perpendicular plane.
F’ horizontal
F’ Vertical
Direction of blur
Image at F’ Horizontal
Image at F’ Vertical
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Astigmatism
Correction of astigmatism
Cylindrical lens
is done through the use
of a cylindrical lens.
Cylindrical lens converge
rays in one plane but not
the perpendicular plane.
Rays in the Rays in the vertical
horizontal plane are plane are undeviated
focused
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Common Eye Diseases
Cataract - Clouding of the lens.
Symptom: Loss of vision
Cure: Lens replacement
Glaucoma - Pressure buildup in
the eye, damaging the retina.
Symptom: Loss of vision first in
the periphery.
Cure: Surgery to drain fluid from
the eye.
Loss of vision is usually
permanent
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Common Eye Diseases
Detached retina - portion
of the retina detaches
Ow!
from the back of the eye.
Symptom: Perception of
flashes, Loss of vision
Cure: Laser surgery to
reattach retina
Pink eye - Infection of the
surface of the eye.
Symptom: Irritation
Cure: Antibiotics
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science