ES 2220b
Environmental and
Exploration Geophysics I
Introduction and Outline
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Contact Information
Instructor: Dr. Karen Assatourians
Office: B&GS 1012b
E-mail: kassatou@[Link]
Office hours: Tuesday, 2:30 – 4:00 pm.
TA’s: Ryan Kahue (rkahue@[Link]);
Derek Kouhi (dkouhi@[Link])
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Course Description
This course provides a brief introduction to the discipline
of exploration geophysics with emphasis on seismology.
Seismology - the branch of geophysics that investigates
the Earth’s structure, and earthquakes using sound
waves in rocks.
Seismology is to the Earth Sciences what radiology is to
Medicine; it is our window into the Earth's interior,
providing a way to map and study the inner workings of
the Earth and planets at different scales.
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Outline
Seismic wave theory: Wave propagation, seismic energy
sources and recording devices, stress and strain.
Seismic refraction method: Basic principles and
techniques.
Seismic reflection method: Data acquisition, basic
processing, interpretation, 3-D methods and case
histories.
Earthquakes and global seismology.
Introduction to Ground Penetrating Radar.
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Textbooks
Required:
Mussett, A.E. and Khan, M.A., Looking into the
Earth: An Introduction to Geological
Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Recommended:
Kearey, P., Brooks, M., Hill I., An Introduction to
Geophysical Exploration, Blackwell, 2002.
Reynolds, John M., An Introduction to Applied
and Environmental Geophysics, Wiley, 2011.
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Textbooks
Recommended:
Sheehan, H.R., Jones, A.F., and Burger C.H.,
Introduction to Applied Geophysics:
Exploring the Shallow Subsurface, W. W.
Norton & Company, 2006.
Lay, T. and Wallace, T.C., Modern Global
Seismology, Academic Press, 1995.
Sheriff, R., and Geldart, L., Exploration
Seismology, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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Course Work
Assignments will consist of examination-style answer
questions, and require no formal writeup. Late
submissions will be accepted with a 5% per day penalty.
In many cases, assignments will require the use of
Matlab.
Under exceptional circumstances, late submissions will
be accepted with no penalty, provided that adequate
documentation is given.
With a few exceptions, only SI units should be used to
report any physical quantities.
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Course Work
The project will involve a written report (5 pages +
figures, single-sided, double-spaced).
The topic will be chosen by the student and approved by
the instructor before February 11.
Research topics must be in any area of geophysics
covered during the course.
The project must include references to the scientific
literature.
Projects are due April 9.
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Course Work
The midterm exam will be held during the class period
on Thursday, February 12 or Tuesday, February 23. (lets
decide this week).
The final exam will be two hours in length and will take
place during the April examination period.
For both exams, a single-sided hand-written crib sheet
and a non-programmable calculator may be used.
Grades, assignments, etc. are going to be posted on OWL
([Link]
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Evaluation
Assignments – 20%
Project – 20%
Midterm Exam – 25%
Final Exam – 35%
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What is Geophysics?
Overview
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What is Geophysics?
The science of geophysics is the application of
the principles of physics to the study of the Earth
and planets.
A huge subject that includes the physics of space
and atmosphere, of the oceans, the interior of
the Earth and planets.
At the heart of geophysics is the theory of the
solid Earth.
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What is Geophysics?
Geophysical investigations – taking
measurements at or near the Earth’s surface.
These measurements are influenced by the
internal distribution of physical properties.
Analysis of these measurements reveal how the
physical properties of the Earth interior vary
vertically and laterally.
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What is Geophysics?
Internal structure of
the Earth:
Crust: 0-60 km
Mantle: 60-2900 km
Core: 2900-6370 km
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What is Geophysics?
Examples of application of physical concepts:
Magnetism Earth magnetic field; presence of the
ores, etc.
Gravitational forces (Newton’s and Einstein theories)
Shape of the Earth and planets, existence of the
solar system.
Earthquakes internal composition of the Earth,
plate tectonics, etc.
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What is Geophysics?
Three aspects to Geophysics:
“Pure” geophysics (ex. how the Earth’s magnetic field
is produced). Understanding the physical principles.
Exploration geophysics as an aid to geology (such as
finding ores, extracting oil and gas, etc.).
Earth, planets, and the solar system as a giant
laboratory (earthquakes, etc.).
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Geophysical methods
Geophysical exploration methods (geophysical
surveying) may be applied to a wide range of
investigations:
Prospecting of hydrocarbon and mineral deposits;
Global geophysics;
Exploration of the subsurface for engineering and
environmental purposes;
Archeology, forensic investigations, etc.
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What is Geophysics?
Advantages of geophysics to geologist:
Make observations about subsurface using
measurements taken at the surface.
Can truly “look” into the Earth’s interior (ex. using
earthquakes to study internal composition of the
Earth, detect buried bodies and structures, etc.).
Geophysics can add the third dimension.
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What is Geophysics?
A geologist describes rocks and structures
mainly visually.
A geophysicist measures physical properties of
rocks:
density, porosity, elastic moduli, etc;
whether they are magnetic, electrically conducting,
radioactive, and so on.
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What is Geophysics?
Martian
topography and
gravity
anomaly
(Zuber et al.
Science, 2003)
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What is Geophysics?
A block of
subsurface from the
Forties oil field in
the North Sea:
Mussett and Khan, 2000 21
What is Geophysics?
In summary:
Geophysical methods are the investigation of the
rocks and structures of the subsurface, by making
(usually) physical measurements at the surface, or –
in the case of radiometric dating and paleomagnetism
– on samples.
Geophysics does not replace geological investigation
but complements it.
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What is Geophysics?
The exposed strata has the
same features at the surface.
Geophysical methods can
detect various structures at
depth.
Such as faults, intrusions,
salt domes, etc.
Mussett and Khan, 2000 23
What is Geophysics?
Limitations of geophysical surveying:
Most methods give information only about the
present.
Some problems have non-unique solutions.
Additional assumptions and constraints have to be
taken into account.
Data analysis and interpretation can be computer
intensive and complex.
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What is Geophysics?
Advantages of geophysical surveying:
Some geophysical methods reveal dynamic processes
operating in the Earth.
The measured physical properties are as much as
vital as a visual description and provide information
hard to find in any other way.
For example: magnetism of a rock can be used to
determine at which latitude it formed.
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Seismology
Overview
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Seismology
Seismology is concerned with determining the
internal structure of the Earth – on all scales.
It involves the analysis of the propagation of
subsurface acoustic or elastic waves generated by
different sources (natural and artificial).
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Exploration
Seismology
Overview
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Exploration Seismology
Use the propagation of seismic waves to infer the
geometry of geological structures at depth, such as:
Top of the water table.
Geometry of a salt diapir.
Depth of the Moho (boundary between crust-mantle)
etc.
The techniques involved:
Refraction / reflection of seismic waves,
Use of active sources and earthquake data.
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Exploration Seismology
Salt diapirs and domes
and oil trappings.
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Refraction
Seismology
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Refraction Seismology
Powerful and relatively cheap method for finding the
depths to approximately horizontal seismic interfaces on all
scales:
local site investigations,
continental studies.
The method allows the estimation of seismic velocities.
This method uses a particular case of refraction in which
the refracted ray runs along an interface, while sending rays
back up to the surface.
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Refraction Seismology
Crustal model for the Western U.S.:
Mooney and Weaver, 1989
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Crustal Thickness
North American crustal
thicknesses.
The Caribbean margin
in Colombia.
Pimiento, 2009 34
Reflection
Seismology
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Reflection Seismology
Seismic reflection surveying is a widely used geophysical
technique.
The most important tool for detailed imaging of layering
within the Earth.
It can reveal structural features such as folding and
faulting.
Its predominant applications are hydrocarbon
exploration and research into crustal structure.
Hydrological studies of aquifers.
Shallow coal exploration.
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Reflection Surveying
Seismic reflection survey of the crustal structure of the
Newfoundland Appalachians (from Lithoprobe 2005).
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Global Seismology
Overview
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Internal Structure of the Earth
Mechanical layers:
Lithosphere
Asthenoshere
Mesosphere
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Seismic Tomography
Seismic structure of the Earth’s mantle
van der Hilst and Karason, 1999
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Reading for the next Lecture
Mussett, A.E. and Khan, M.A., pages 7-12.
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