Alternating Current
Alternating current
Alternating current (ac) is the current that alternates
in direction (usually many times per second)
Alternating current is produced by voltage source
whose polarities alternate between positive and
negative
Alternating currents are called ac currents and
alternating voltages are called ac voltages
Alternating current
Alternating current
Figure shows a voltage waveform
Starting at zero, the voltage increases to a positive
maximum, decreases to zero, changes polarity,
increases to a negative maximum, then returns
again to zero
One complete variation is referred to as a cycle
Since the waveform repeats itself at regular
intervals it is called a periodic waveform
Alternating voltage Generator
The conductor loop rotates through
the magnetic field to generate
induced ac voltage across its
terminals
At the horizontal position, the loop
does not induce a voltage because
the conductor does not cut across
the flux
At the vertical position, conductor
cuts across the flux and produce
maximum voltage
Alternating voltage Generator
The voltage waveform shown in figure is called a sine
wave
Figure: One cycle of alternating voltage generated by
rotating loop
Alternating voltage Generator
Angular Measure and Radian Measure
The cycle of voltage corresponds to
rotation of the loop around a circle,
so parts of the cycle are described
in angles
The radian (rad) is an angle
equivalent to 57.3°
A radian is the angular part of the
circle that includes an arc equal to
the radius r of the circle
A circle’s circumference equals 2πr,
so one cycle equals 2π rad
Alternating voltage Generator
Angular Measurement and Radian Measurement
Angular Measurement Radian Equivalent
Zero degrees Zero radians
360° 2π rad
180° ½ × 2π rad, or π rad
90° ½ × π rad, or π/2 rad
270° (180°+ 90°) π rad + π/2 rad = 3π/2 rad
The Sine Wave
The voltage waveform
shown is called a sine
wave, sinusoidal wave,
or sinusoid
The induced voltage is
proportional to the sine
of the angle of rotation
in the circular motion
producing the voltage
Figure: Waveform of ac voltage
Sine Wave
With a sine wave, the induced voltage increases to a
maximum at 90°, when the loop is vertical, just as the
sine of the angle of rotation increases to a maximum at
90°
The instantaneous value of a sine-wave voltage for any
angle of rotation is expressed in the formula:
v = VM sin θ
θ (theta) is the angle
sin = the abbreviation for sine
VM = the maximum voltage value
v = the instantaneous value of voltage at angle θ
Sine Wave
Characteristics of the Sine-Wave AC Waveform:
The cycle includes 360° or 2π rad
The polarity reverses each half-cycle
The maximum values are at 90° and 270°
The zero values are at 0° and 180°
Alternating Current
When a sine wave of alternating voltage is connected
across a load resistance, the current that flows in the
circuit is also a sine wave
The sine wave frequency of an alternating voltage is
the same as the alternating current through a series
connected load resistance
Alternating Current
Figure: A sine wave of alternating voltage applied across R produces a sine
wave of alternating current in the circuit. (a) Waveform of applied voltage. (b)
AC circuit. (c) Waveform of current in the circuit.
Alternating Current
After the first half-cycle, polarity reverses and
current flows in the opposite direction
The negative half-cycle of applied voltage is as
useful as the positive half-cycle in producing
current
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave
The following specific magnitudes are used to compare
one wave to another:
Peak value: Value of voltage or current at the positive or
negative maximum with respect to zero. Represented as
Vp and Ip
Peak-to-peak: Voltage or current from the positive peak to
the negative peak. Represented as Vpp and Ipp
Average value: Arithmetic average of all values in one
half-cycle (the full cycle average = 0)
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective Value: Relates
the amount of a sine wave of voltage or current to the DC
values that will produce the same heating effect
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave
Instantaneous values: The values of the
alternating voltage or current at any instant of time.
Represented as v and i
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave
The average value is 0.637 × peak value
The rms value is 0.707 × peak value
The peak value is 1.414 × rms value
The peak-to-peak value is 2.828 × rms value
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave
Figure: Amplitude values for a sine wave of voltage or
current
Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles per
second
Cycle is measured between two successive
points having the same value and direction
One cycle per second is 1 Hz
Frequency
Sine Wave Frequency
(two cycles shown)
Amplitude
0 Time
0.5 sec 1 sec
f = 2 Hz
Period
Period (T) is the time per cycle
T = 1/f
f = 1/T
The higher the frequency, the shorter the period
Period
T
Amplitude
0 Time
0.0167 s
f = 1/T = 1/.0167 = 60 Hz
Wavelength
Wavelength (λ) is the distance a wave travels in
one cycle
λ = v/f, where:
λ = wavelength
v = velocity of wave (such as sound or light)
f = frequency
The higher the frequency, the lower the
wavelength
The velocity of a radio wave is 3 × 108
meter/second
Wavelength
Phase Angle
Phase angle (θ) is the angular difference
between the same points on two different
waveforms of the same frequency
Two waveforms that have peaks and zeros at the
same time are in phase and have a phase angle
of 0°
When one sine wave is at its peak while another
is at zero, the two are 90° out of phase
When one sine wave has just the opposite phase
of another, they are 180° out of phase
Phase Angle
Figure: Two waves with voltages 90° out of phase. (a) Wave B
leads wave A by 90°. (b) Corresponding phasors VB and VA for
the two wave voltages with phase angle Θ = 90°
Phase Angle
Figure: Leading and lagging phase angles for 90° (a) When
phasor VA is the horizontal reference, phasor VB leads by 90°
(b) When phasor VB is the horizontal reference, phasor VA lags
by −90°
The Time Factor in Frequency and
Phase
The physical factors represented on waveforms are
variations in amplitude, usually on the vertical scale,
with respect to equal intervals on the horizontal
scale, which can represent either distance or time
The angle of 360° represents the time for one cycle,
or the period T
The phase angle between two waves of the same
frequency indicates a specific difference in time
The time for a phase angle can be calculated as
Θ 1
t= ×
360 f
Nonsinusoidal AC Waveforms
In many electronic applications, other waveforms
besides sine and cosine are important. Some of
those forms are shown below
Square wave
Common in digital electronic circuitry
Sawtooth wave
Used in timing and control circuitry
Pulse wave
Used in digital and control circuitry
Harmonic Frequencies
Harmonic frequencies are exact multiples of the
fundamental frequency
Harmonics are useful in analyzing distorted sine
waves or nonsinusoidal waveforms
A common unit for frequency multiples is the
octave, which is a range of 2:1. Doubling the
frequency range (e.g., from 200 to 400 Hz)
raises the frequency by one octave
Another unit for representing frequency multiples
is the decade. A decade corresponds to a 10:1
range in frequencies (e.g., 30 kHz to 300 kHz)
Harmonic Frequencies
Figure: Fundamental and harmonic frequencies of a 100-Hz
square wave