Chapter 01

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 Chapter 1
The Human Organism

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 1.1 Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy: scientific discipline that
investigates the body’s structure

• Physiology: scientific investigation of the

processes or functions of living things

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 Topics of Anatomy

• Gross or macroscopic: structures examined

without a microscope
– Regional: studied area by area
– Systemic: studied system by system
– Surface: external form and relation to deeper
structures as x-ray in anatomic imaging
• Microscopic: structures seen with the microscope
– Cytology: cellular anatomy
– Histology: study of tissues

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ANATOMICAL IMAGING
Anatomical Imaging
 Topics of Physiology

• Reveals dynamic nature of living things

• Considers operations of specific organ
systems
– Cell physiology: examines processes in cells
– Neurophysiology: focuses on the nervous
system
– Cardiovascular: the heart and blood vessels

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 Subjects That Encompass Both
Anatomy and Physiology

• Pathology: structural and functional

changes caused by disease
• Exercise Physiology: changes in structure
and function caused by exercise

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 1.2 Structural and Functional Organizations
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display. • Chemical Level: interaction of
1 Chemical level. Atoms
(colored balls) combine
to form molecules.
atoms
• Cell Level: structural and
1
2 Cell level. Molecules
form organelles, such as
the nucleus and mitochondria,
Atoms

functional unit of living

which make up cells.
Mitochondria
3 Tissue level. Similar cells
and surrounding materials 2 Nucleus

organisms
make up tissues. Molecule
(DNA)
4 Organ level. Different
tissues combine to form

• Tissue Level: group of similar

organs, such as the Smooth muscle cell
urinary bladder.
5 Organ system level.

cells and the materials

Organs, such as the Smooth
urinary bladder and muscle 3
kidneys, make up an tissue

surrounding them
organ system.
6 Organism level. Organ
systems make up an
organism.

Urinary
bladder
4
Epithelium • Organ Level: one or more tissues
functioning together
Connective tissue
Smooth muscle tissue

Kidney Connective tissue

6 5
Ureter Wall of urinary bladder • Organ System Level: group of
Urinary bladder
Urethra
organs functioning together
Urinary system

• Organism Level: any living

Organism

© Bart Harris/Corbis

thing.

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 Organs of the Body
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Brain

Spinal cord

Carotid
artery
Larynx
Trachea Esophagus

Aortic arch
Lung

Heart
Diaphragm
Liver
Spleen
Pancreas (behind (behind stomach)
stomach)
Stomach
Gallbladder
Kidney
Kidney (behind stomach)
(behind intestine)
Small intestine
Large
intestine
Ureter
(behind small
intestine)
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
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 Organ Systems of the Body
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Hair
Skull Temporalis

Pectoralis
Clavicle major
Sternum
Ribs
Skin Humerus
Biceps
Vertebral brachii
column
Rectus
Pelvis Radius abdominis
Ulna

Sartorius
Femur Quadriceps
femoris

Tibia Gastrocnemius
Fibula

Integumentary System Skeletal System Muscular System

Provides protection, regulates temperature, Provides protection and support, allows Produces body movements, maintains
prevents water loss, and helps produce body movements, produces blood cells, and posture, and produces body heat. Consists of
vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.
sweat glands. associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.

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Integumentary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System
 Organ Systems of the Body (cont.)
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Nasal Pharynx
Tonsils cavity (throat)
Nose
Pharynx Oral cavity Salivary
Cervical
(throat) (mouth) glands
lymph
Thymus Larynx
node Esophagus
Trachea Stomach
Axillary Mammary Bronchi
plexus Pancreas
lymph Lungs
node Small
Thoracic intestine
Liver
duct
Gallbladder Large
Lymphatic Spleen intestine
vessel
Inguinal
lymph node Appendix

Rectum
Anus

Lymphatic System Respiratory System Digestive System

Removes foreign substances from the blood Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide Performs the mechanical and chemical
and lymph, combats disease, maintains between the blood and air and regulates processes of digestion, absorption of
tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from blood pH. Consists of the lungs and nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Consists
the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic respiratory passages. of the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic intestines, and accessory organs.
organs.

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Lymphatic System
Digestive System
Respiratory System
 Organ Systems of the Body (cont.)
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Hypothalamus
Brain Pineal Carotid
gland artery
Pituitary
Superior
Parathyroids Jugular vena cava
Spinal cord Thyroid (posterior vein
part of Pulmonary
Thymus thyroid) trunk
Nerve Heart
Brachial
Cauda artery Aorta
Adrenals
equina Pancreas
(islets)
Ovaries Inferior Femoral
Testes vena cava artery and
(female)
(male) vein

Nervous System Endocrine System Cardiovascular System

A major regulatory system that detects A major regulatory system that influences Transports nutrients, waste products, gases,
sensations and controls movements, metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many and hormones throughout the body; plays
physiological processes, and intellectual other functions. Consists of glands, such as a role in the immune response and the
functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, the pituitary, that secrete hormones. regulation of body temperature. Consists of
nerves, and sensory receptors. the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

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Nervous System
Endocrine System
Cardiovascular System
 Organ Systems of the Body (cont.)
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Mammary
gland
(in breast)

Seminal
Kidney Uterine vesicle
tube
Ureter
Prostate
Ovary Ductus gland
Urinary deferens
bladder
Uterus Testis

Urethra

Vagina Epididymis Penis

Urinary System Female Reproductive System Male Reproductive System

Removes waste products from the blood and Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization Produces and transfers sperm cells to
regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water and fetal development; produces milk for the the female and produces hormones that
balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary newborn; produces hormones that influence influence sexual functions and behaviors.
bladder, and ducts that carry urine. sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the Consists of the testes, accessory structures,
ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and ducts, and penis.
associated structures.

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Urinary System
Reproductive System
 1.3 Characteristics of Life
1. Organization: condition in which there are specific
relationships and functions
2. Metabolism: all chemical reactions of the body
3. Responsiveness: ability to sense changes and adjust
4. Growth: increase in size and/or number of cells
5. Development: changes in an organism over time
Differentiation: change from general to specific
Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs
6. Reproduction: new cells or new organisms

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 1.4 Biomedical Research
• Shared characteristics between living things
drive research
– Single-celled bacteria = cell
– Mammalian research furthers human surgery
and medicine
• Strict laws govern research to minimize suffering

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 1.5 Homeostasis
• Values of variables fluctuate
around the set point to establish a normal range of values.
• Set point: the ideal normal value of a variable.
• What is the set point for body temperature?

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98.8° F
Body temperature
(normal range)

98.6° F Set point

98.4° F

Time (min) 1-27

 Feedback Systems
• Two types: negative and positive
• Components
– Receptor: monitors the value of some variable
– Control center: establishes the set point
– Effector: can change the value of the variable
• Stimulus: deviation from the set point;
detected by the receptor
• Response: produced by the effector
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 Negative Feedback
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1 Receptors monitor the

value of a variable. In this
case, receptors in the wall
of a blood vessel monitor 1
blood pressure. Receptors monitor
2 blood pressure.
2 Information about the value
of the variable is sent to a
control center. In this case,
nerves send information to
Nerves
the part of the brain
responsible for regulating 5
3 Effector (heart)
blood pressure.
Control center 4 responds to changes
3 The control center (brain) in blood pressure.
compares the value of the
variable against the set
point.

4 If a response is necessary 5 An effector produces a

to maintain homeostasis, response that maintains
the control center causes homeostasis. In this case,
an effector to respond. In changing heart rate
this case, nerves send changes blood pressure.
information to the heart.

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Example of Negative Feedback
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3 4

Receptors detect an increase in

blood pressure. Effectors Activated:
Control centers in the brain decrease Heart rate and stroke volume
stimulation of heart and blood vessels. decrease; blood vessels dilate.

Blood pressure increases: Blood pressure decreases:

2 5 Homeostasis Restored
Homeostasis Disturbed

Blood pressure
Blood pressure

(normal range)
(normal range)

1 Start Here 6

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Blood pressure decreases: Blood pressure increases:

Homeostasis Disturbed Homeostasis Restored

Receptors detect a decrease in

blood pressure. Effectors Activated:
Control centers in the brain increase Heart rate and stroke volume
stimulation of heart and blood vessels. increase; blood vessels constrict.
 Changes in B.P. During Exercise
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Blood pressure

Normal BP
during exercise
Normal BP at rest Normal BP
after exercise

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Time
 Positive Feedback
• When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation
greater
– Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and
can result in death
– Example of normal positive feedback: childbirth
– Example of harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage, blood pressure
drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decreases
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SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE
Enzyme A Enzyme A

Inactive intermediate 1 Inactive intermediate 1

Enzyme B Enzyme B
– +
Inactive intermediate 2 Inactive intermediate 2

Enzyme C Enzyme C
Active product Active product

(a) Negative feedback (b) Positive feedback

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 1.6 Terminology and Body Plan
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• Anatomical Position
– Body erect, face forward, feet Right Left
Superior
together, palms face forward Midline
(cephalic)

• Other Body Positions Proximal

– Supine: lying face upward

Medial
– Prone: lying face downward Distal
Lateral
• Directional Terms
– Superior (Cephalic) vs. Inferior Inferior
(caudal)
(Caudal) toward or away from the
head
– Medial vs. Lateral relative to the
midline
– Proximal vs. Distal used to
describe linear structures Distal

– Superficial vs. Deep relative to the Proximal

surface of the body

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer

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 Body Positions

Anatomical position Supine

Prone
Superior Inferior
(cephalic) (caudal)
Anterior Posterior
(ventral) (dorsal)
Proximal Distal
Medial Lateral
Superficial Deep
 Terminology and Body Plan (cont.)
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Superior
(cephalic)

• Directional Terms
Anterior
(ventral)
Posterior
(dorsal)
Inferior
(caudal) (cont.)
– Anterior (Ventral) vs.
Posterior (Dorsal).
Anterior is forward;
Proximal
posterior is toward the
back.

Distal

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 Body Parts and Regions
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Frontal (forehead)
Orbital (eye) Otic (ear)
Head
Nasal (nose) Buccal (cheek)
Oral (mouth)
Mental (chin)
Neck Cervical
Clavicular (collarbone)

Pectoral (chest) Axillary (armpit)

Thoracic Sternal (breastbone)
(thorax) Brachial (arm)
Mammary (breast)

Antecubital (front of elbow)

Trunk Upper
Abdominal (abdomen)
Antebrachial (forearm) limb
Umbilical (navel)

Pelvic (pelvis)
Inguinal (groin) Carpal (wrist)
Pubic (genital)
Palmar (palm)
Manual (hand)
Digital (fingers)

Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)

Patellar (kneecap)

Crural (leg) Lower

(a)
limb

Talus (ankle)
Dorsum (top of foot) Pedal (foot)
Digital (toes)

© McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer

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 Central Region

Head Neck Trunk

Upper Limb

Arm Forearm Wrist Ankle

 Lower Limb

Thigh Leg Ankle Foot

 Body Parts and Regions
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Cranial (skull)
Occipital (base of skull)

Nuchal (back of neck)

Acromial (point of shoulder)

Scapular (shoulder blade)

Dorsal Vertebral (spinal column)

(back)

Olecranon (point of elbow) Upper limb

Lumbar (loin)

Trunk
Sacral (between hips)

Dorsum (back of hand)

Gluteal (buttock)

Perineal (perineum)

Popliteal (hollow behind knee)

(b) Sural (calf)

Lower limb

Plantar (sole)

Calcaneal (heel)

© McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer

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 Abdominal Subdivisions
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Right Left
hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac
region region region
Right-upper Left-upper
quadrant quadrant

Right Left
lumbar Umbilical lumbar
region region region

Right-lower Left-lower
quadrant quadrant Right Left
iliac Hypogastric iliac
region region region

(a) (b)

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 Abdominal Quadrants
Upper Lower Upper Lower
Right Right Left Left
 Abdominal Quadrants

Upper Right Upper Left

Lower Right Lower Left

Rt. Hypochondriac Lt. Hypochondriac
Epigastric

Abdominal
Regions
Rt. Lumbar [Link]
Umbilical

Rt. Iliac Lt. Iliac

Hypogastric
 Nine Abdominal Regions
Rt. Epigastric Lt.
Hypochondriac Hypochondriac

Rt. Lumbar Umbilical Lt. Lumbar

Rt. Iliac Hypogastric Lt. Iliac

 Planes
• Median (through the Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

midline) and Sagittal (same

plane, but to the left or right
of median Sagittal
plane

• Frontal or Coronal divides Transverse,

or horizontal,

body into anterior and plane

posterior sections
• Transverse / Cross divides
body into superior and
inferior sections
Frontal, or

• Oblique: Other than at a coronal, plane

right angle

(a)
a: © McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer; b-d: © R. T Hutchings
Body Planes
Sagittal Plane
Median (Midsagittal) Plane
Transverse (Horizontal) Plane
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
Oblique Plane
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Cerebrum

Cerebellum Nasal cavity

Brainstem
Tongue
Spinal cord Pharynx (throat)

Vertebral
column Trachea

(b) Sagittal section of the head

Sagittal
plane

Transverse,
or horizontal,
plane

Stomach
Liver Large
intestine
Spleen
Kidney Vertebra
Spinal Kidney
cord
Frontal, or
coronal, plane
(c) Transverse section through the abdomen

Skin
Fat
Hip muscle

(a) Coxal bone

Femur (hipbone)
(thighbone)

Thigh muscles

(d) Frontal section through the right hip

a: © McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer; b-d: © R. T Hutchings
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 Planes Through an Organ
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• Longitudinal: cut
along the length of an Longitudinal section

organ
• Transverse/Cross: cut
Intestine
at right angle to length
of the organ
• Oblique: cut at any but
a right angle

Transverse Oblique
section section

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 Body Cavities
• Diaphragm: divides body cavity into thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities.
• Mediastinum: contains all structures of the thoracic
cavity except the lungs
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Esophagus
Trachea
Mediastinum
(divides Blood vessels
thoracic
cavity) Thymus Thoracic
cavity
Heart

Abdominal
cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominal
Abdominopelvic cavity
cavity

Pelvic cavity Pelvic

Symphysis cavity
pubis
(a) (b) 1-61
 Body
Thoracic
Cavities cavity

Trunk

Abdominal
cavity

Pelvic
cavity
Thoracic Cavity
Body CavitiesAbdominopelvic Cavity
Diaphragm

Mediastinum Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity

 Serous Membranes
• Cover the organs of trunk cavities and line the cavity
• Fist represents an organ
• Inner balloon wall represents visceral serous membrane
• Outer balloon wall represents parietal serous membrane
• Cavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous
fluid that is produced by the membranes
• Inflammation of the serous membranes
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Outer balloon wall

Outer balloon wall (parietal serous
membrane)
Inner balloon wall Inner balloon wall
(visceral serous
Cavity membrane)
Fist (organ) Cavity
Fist (organ)

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(a) (b)
 Serous Membranes: Named for
Their Specific Cavities and Organs
– Pericardium refers to heart.
– Pleura refers to lungs and thoracic cavity
– Peritoneum refers to abdominopelvic cavity
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Parietal
peritoneum
Visceral
Parietal Organs peritoneum
pericardium surrounded
Peritoneal
by visceral
Visceral cavity
peritoneum
pericardium containing
peritoneal
Pericardial
fluid
cavity
containing Retroperitoneal
pericardial Mesenteries organs
fluid Mesentery
Heart

(a)

Parietal Retroperitoneal
pleura organs
Visceral (c)
pleura
Pleural cavity
containing
pleural fluid
Lung

Diaphragm

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(b)
 Pericardial Membranes

Visceral Parietal
pericardium pericardium

Pericardial cavity
 Pleural Membranes

Visceral pleura Parietal pleura

Pleural cavity
 Peritoneum Visceral Parietal Peritoneal
peritoneum peritoneum cavity

Lesser Mesentery Greater

omentum of small intestine
Peritoneal omentum

Membranes
 Imaging Techniques
• Radiography
• Ultrasound (US)
• Computed Tomography (CT)
• Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)
• Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

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•Radiography (X-ray): Shadowy negative of
internal body structures
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© Omikron/Photo Researchers, Inc. 1-70

•Ultrasound (US): computer-analyzed sound waves
bounced off a structure in the body.
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© Bernard Benoit/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Computed
Tomography (CT
Scan): computer-
analyzed composite of
radiograph; shows slices
of body. (a)

• Dynamic Spatial
Reconstruction (DSR):
3-D version of CT using
multiple slices.

(b)
(a): © Scott Camazine (b): © D. P. M. Ribotsky/Custom Medical Stock Photo

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•Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA):
comparison of radiographs with and without dye. Used in blood vessel
studies.
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© ISM/[Link]

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•Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): uses magnetism
and radio waves to look for varying alignment of protons in
soft tissues.
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© Photodisc RF
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•Positron Emission Tomography (PET): uses
radioactively labeled glucose to calculate metabolic activity
of cells.
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© McGill University/ CNRI/[Link]

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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 1.1 Anatomical Imaging

Imaging Technique Image Clinical Examples
X-ray This extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation (see chapter 2) moves
through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph (rā′dē-
ō-graf ). Bones and radiopaque dyes absorb the rays and create underexposed
areas that appear white on the photographic film. Almost everyone has had a
radiograph taken, either to visualize a broken bone or to check for a cavity in
a tooth. However, a major limitation of radiographs is that they give only flat,
two-dimensional (2-D) images of the body.

Ultrasound Ultrasound, the second oldest imaging technique, was first developed in the early
1950s as an extension of World War II sonar technology. It uses high-frequency
sound waves, which are emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over
the area to be scanned. The sound waves strike internal organs and bounce back
to the receiver on the skin. Even though the basic technology is fairly old, the most
important advances in the field occurred only after it became possible to analyze
the reflected sound waves by computer. Once a computer analyzes the pattern
of sound waves, the information is transferred to a monitor and visualized as a
sonogram (son′ō-gram) image. One of the more recent advances in ultrasound
technology is the ability of more advanced computers to analyze changes in
position through “real-time” movements. Among other medical applications,
ultrasoundis commonly used to evaluate the condition of the fetus during pregnancy.

Computed Tomography Computed tomographic (tō′mō-graf′ik) (CT) scans, developed in 1972 and
(CT) originally called computerized axial tomographic (CAT) scans, are computer-
analyzed x-ray images. A low-intensity x-ray tube is rotated through a 360-degree
arc around the patient, and the images are fed into a computer. The computer
then constructs the image of a “slice” through the body at the point where the
x-ray beam was focused and rotated (a). Some computers are able to take several
scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body
part (b).
(a) (b)

Dynamic Subtraction Digital subtraction angiography (an-jē-og′ră-fē) (DSA) is one step beyond CT
Angiography (DSA) scanning. A 3-D radiographic image of an organ, such as the brain, is made and
stored in a computer. Then a radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, and a
second radiographic computer image is made. The first image is subtracted from
the second one, greatly enhancing the differences revealed by the injected dye.
These dynamic computer images can be used, for example, to guide a catheter
into a carotid artery during angioplasty, a procedure by which a tiny balloon
compresses the material clogging the artery.

Magnetic Resonance Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) directs radio waves at a person lying inside
Imaging (MRI) a large electromagnetic field. The magnetic field causes the protons of various
atoms to align (see chapter 2). Because of the large amounts of water in the
body, the alignment of hydrogen atom protons is most important in this imaging
system. Radio waves of certain frequencies, which change the alignment of the
hydrogen atoms, then are directed at the patient. When the radio waves are
turned off, the hydrogen atoms realign in accordance with the magnetic field.
The time it takes the hydrogen atoms to realign is different for various body
tissues. These differences can be analyzed by computer to produce very clear
sections through the body. The technique is also very sensitive in detecting
some forms of cancer far more readily than can a CT scan.

Positron Emission Positron emission tomographic (PET) scans can identify the metabolic states
Tomography (PET) of various tissues. This technique is particularly useful in analyzing the brain.
When cells are active, they are using energy. The energy they need is supplied
by the breakdown of glucose (blood sugar). If radioactively treated (“labeled”)
glucose is given to a patient, the active cells take up the labeled glucose. As
the radioactivity in the glucose decays, positively charged subatomic particles
called positrons are emitted. When the positrons collide with electrons, the two
particles annihilate each other and gamma rays are given off. The gamma rays
can be detected, pinpointing the cells that are metabolically active.

A: © Omikron/Photo Researchers, Inc.; B: © Bernard Benoit/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; C(a): © Scott Camazine; 1-76
C(b): © D. P. M. Ribotsky/Custom Medical Stock Photo; D: © ISM/[Link]; E: © Photodisc RF; F: © McGill University/ CNRI/[Link]