Chapter 2:
The Project Management and
Information Technology Context
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition
Projects Cannot Be Run
In Isolation
Projects must operate in a broad organizational
environment
Project managers need to use systems thinking:
◦ taking a holistic view of carrying out projects within the
context of the organization
Senior managers must make sure projects
continue to support current business needs
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 2
A Systems View of Project Management
A systems approach emerged in the 1950s to
describe a more analytical approach to
management and problem solving
Three parts include:
◦ Systems philosophy: an overall model for thinking about
things as systems
◦ Systems analysis: problem-solving approach
◦ Systems management: address business, technological,
and organizational issues before making changes to
systems
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 3
Figure 2-1. Three Sphere Model for
Systems Management
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 4
Stakeholder Management
Project managers must take time to identify,
understand, and manage relationships with all
project stakeholders
Senior executives/top management are very
important stakeholders
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 5
The Importance of Top Management
Commitment
People in top management positions are key
stakeholders in projects
A very important factor in helping project managers
successfully lead projects is the level of commitment
and support they receive from top management
Without top management commitment, many projects
will fail.
Some projects have a senior manager called a
champion who acts as a key proponent for a project.
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 6
How Top Management Can Help
Project Managers
Providing adequate resources
Approving unique project needs in a timely
manner
Getting cooperation from other parts of the
organization
Mentoring and coaching on leadership issues
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 7
Best Practice
IT governance addresses the authority and
control for key IT activities in organizations,
including IT infrastructure, IT use, and project
management
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 8
Need for Organizational Commitment
to Information Technology (IT)
If the organization has a negative attitude toward
IT, it will be difficult for an IT project to succeed
Having a Chief Information Officer (CIO) at a high
level in the organization helps IT projects
Assigning non-IT people to IT projects also
encourage more commitment
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 9
Need for Organizational Standards
Standards and guidelines help project managers
be more effective
Senior management can encourage
◦ the use of standard forms and software for project
management
◦ the development and use of guidelines for writing project
plans or providing status information
◦ the creation of a project management office or center of
excellence
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 10
Project Phases and the Project Life
Cycle
A project life cycle is a collection of project
phases that defines
◦ what work will be performed in each phase
◦ what deliverables will be produced and when
◦ who is involved in each phase, and
◦ how management will control and approve work
produced in each phase
A deliverable is a product or service produced or
provided as part of a project
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 11
More on Project Phases
In early phases of a project life cycle
◦ resource needs are usually lowest
◦ the level of uncertainty (risk) is highest
◦ project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to
influence the project
In middle phases of a project life cycle
◦ the certainty of completing a project improves
◦ more resources are needed
The final phase of a project life cycle focuses on
◦ ensuring that project requirements were met
◦ the sponsor approves completion of the project
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 12
Project Life Cycles
Projects also have life cycles
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is
a framework for describing the phases involved in
developing and maintaining information systems
Systems development projects can follow
◦ Predictive life cycle: the scope of the project can be
clearly articulated and the schedule and cost can be
predicted
◦ Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle:
requirements cannot be clearly expressed, projects are
mission driven and component based, using time-based
cycles to meet target dates
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 13
Predictive Life Cycle Models
Waterfall model: has well-defined, linear stages of
systems development and support
Spiral model: shows that software is developed
using an iterative or spiral approach rather than a
linear approach
Incremental build model: provides for progressive
development of operational software
Prototyping model: used for developing prototypes
to clarify user requirements
Rapid Application Development (RAD) model:
used to produce systems quickly without
sacrificing quality
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 14
Figure 2-5. Waterfall and Spiral Life
Cycle Models
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 15
Agile Software Development
Agile software development has become popular
to describe new approaches that focus on close
collaboration between programming teams and
business experts
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 16
The Importance of Project Phases and
Management Reviews
A project should successfully pass through each
of the project phases in order to continue on to the
next
Management reviews, also called phase exits or
kill points, should occur after each phase to
evaluate the project’s progress, likely success,
and continued compatibility with organizational
goals
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 17
The Context of IT Projects
IT projects can be very diverse in terms of size,
complexity, products produced, application area,
and resource requirements
IT project team members often have diverse
backgrounds and skill sets
IT projects use diverse technologies that change
rapidly. Even within one technology area, people
must be highly specialized
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 18
Recent Trends Affecting IT Project
Management
Globalization:
is a process of interaction and integration among the people,
companies, and governments of different nations, a process
driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology.
Outsourcing:
is when an organization acquires goods and/or sources from
an outside source. Offshoring is sometimes used to describe
outsourcing from another country
Virtual teams:
is a group of individuals who work across time and space
using communication technologies
Agile project management
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 19
Important Issues and Suggestions
Related to Globalization
Issues
◦ Communications
◦ Trust
◦ Common work practices
◦ Tools
Suggestions
◦ Employ greater project discipline
◦ Think global but act local
◦ Keep project momentum going
◦ Use newer tools and technology
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 20
Outsourcing
Organizations remain competitive by using
outsourcing to their advantage, such as finding
ways to reduce costs
Their next challenge is to make strategic IT
investments with outsourcing by improving their
enterprise architecture to ensure that IT
infrastructure and business processes are
integrated and standardized
Project managers should become more familiar with
negotiating contracts and other outsourcing issues
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 21
Virtual Teams Advantages
Increasing competiveness and responsiveness
by having a team of workers available 24/7
Lowering costs because many virtual workers
do not require office space or support beyond
their home offices.
Providing more expertise and flexibility by
having team members from across the globe
working any time of day or night
Increasing the work/life balance for team
members by eliminating fixed office hours and
the need to travel to work.
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 22
Virtual Team Disadvantages
Isolating team members
Increasing the potential for communications
problems
Reducing the ability for team members to network
and transfer information informally
Increasing the dependence on technology to
accomplish work
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 23
Agile Project Management
Agile means being able to move quickly and easily, but
some people feel that project management, as they have
seen it used, does not allow people to work quickly or
easily.
Early software development projects often used a
waterfall approach, as defined earlier in this chapter. As
technology and businesses became more complex, the
approach was often difficult to use because
requirements were unknown or continuously changing.
Agile today means using a method based on iterative
and incremental development, in which requirements
and solutions evolve through collaboration.
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 24
Agile Certified Practitioner (ACP).
The Project Management Institute (PMI) recognized the
increased interest in Agile, and introduced a new
certification in 2011 called Agile Certified Practitioner
(ACP).
Project managers understand that they have always had
the option of customizing how they run projects, but that
project management is not easy, even when using Agile.
Information Technology Project
Management, Seventh Edition Copyright 2014 25