Chapter 7 Age- and Sex-Related
Differences and Their Implications for
Resistance Exercise
CHILDREN
• With the growing interest in youth resistance training, it
is important for strength and conditioning professionals
to understand the fundamental principles of growth,
maturation, and development.
• Because the training of young athletes is becoming more
intense and complex, anatomical, physiological, and
psychosocial factors that may be associated with acute
and chronic injury also need to be considered.
The Growing Child
• In this section, the terms growth, development, and maturation are
used to describe changes that occur in the body throughout life.
• Puberty refers to a period of time in which secondary sex characteristics
develop and a child transitions to young adulthood. During puberty,
changes also occur in body composition and the performance of physical
skills, with such changes varying markedly between individuals.
• Chronological Age Versus Biological Age
• Because of considerable variation in the rates of growth and
development, it is not particularly accurate to define a stage of
maturation or development by age in months or years, which is known
as chronological age.
Muscle and Bone Growth
• As children grow, muscle mass steadily increases
throughout the developing years.
• At birth, approximately 25% of a child’s body weight is
muscle mass, and by adulthood this percentage increases
to about 40%. During puberty, marked increases in
hormonal concentrations (e.g., testosterone, growth
hormone, and insulin-like growth factor) in boys result in
a marked increase in muscle mass and widening of the
shoulders, whereas in girls an increase in estrogen
production causes increased body fat deposition, breast
development, and widening of the hips.
Developmental Changes in Muscular Strength
• As muscle mass increases throughout preadolescence and
adolescence, there is an increase in muscular strength. In fact,
the growth curves for strength are similar to those for body
mass
• In boys, peak gains in strength typically occur about 1.2 years
after peak height velocity and 0.8 years after peak weight
velocity, with body weight being the clearer indicator.
• In girls, peak gains in strength also typically occur after peak
height velocity, although there is more individual variation in
the relationship of strength to height and body weight for girls
than for boys.
Youth Resistance Training
• Clinicians, coaches, and exercise scientists now agree that
resistance exercise can be a safe and effective method of
conditioning for children (12, 19, 54, 57, 64, 66, 74, 121, 129,
130).
• An increasing number of boys and girls are participating in
resistance training activ-ities, and major sports medicine
organizations support children’s participation in a range of
resistance exercise modes, provided that the programs are
appropriately designed and supervised by qualified
professionals (2, 3, 7, 22, 57, 129).
• Children should begin resistance training at a level that is
commensurate with their maturity level, physical abilities, and
individual goals. Adult programs and training philosophies
should not be superimposed on younger populations.
• When introducing children to resistance training activities, it is
always better to underestimate their physical abilities and
gradually increase the volume and intensity of training than to
exceed their abilities and risk injury or long-term negative
health outcomes.
Responsiveness to Resistance Training
• In children, much of the controversy surrounding youth
resistance training stemmed from the issue of children’s
trainability that is children’s responsiveness to the stimulus of
resistance exercise.
• Children who participate in resistance training programs are
likely to undergo periods of reduced training or inactivity due
to program design factors, extended travel plans, busy
schedules, injury, involvement in multiple sports, or decreased
motivation. This temporary reduction or withdrawal of the
training stimulus is called detraining.
Potential Benefits
• In addition to increasing muscular strength, power,
and muscular endurance, regular participation in a
youth resistance training program has the potential to
influence many other health- and fitness-related
measures.
• Resistance exercise may favorably alter selected
anatomic and psychosocial parameters, reduce
injuries in sport and recreational activities, and
improve motor skills and sport performance
Potential risk and concern
• Appropriately prescribed youth resistance training
programs are relatively safe when compared with
other sports and activities.
• Resistance training is dangerous for children and
the is not consistent with the need of children
and the documented risks associated with this
type of training.
• strength and conditioning professional to heed
safety guidelines when working with younger
populations.
Program Design Considerations for
Children
• It is important to view resistance training as part of a well-
rounded exercise program for a child that also addresses other
fitness goals.
FEMALE ATHLETES
• Women who regularly participate in resistance training
activities can improve their health, develop good feelings
about themselves, reduce their risk of degenerative diseases
and enhance their sports performance.
• Past women questioned the value of resistance training.
SEX DIFFERENCE
• In:
• Physique
• Body Composition
• Physiological responses to resistance
exercise when designing & evaluating
resistance training programs
BODY SIZE AND COMPOSITION
• WOMEN
•Estrogen
•Fat Deposition
•Breast Development
•Broader hips
• MEN:
•Testosterone
•Bone formation &
•Protein synthesis
•Broader shoulder
STRENGTH AND POWER OUTPUT
1. Men and women differ most in terms
of upper body strength
2. Women can’t excel at power sports
and can’t enhance power through
training
3. In terms of absolute strength, women
are generally weaker than men
because of their low quantity muscles.
RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR
FEMALE ATHLETES
• Men and women respond to
resistance exercise from their pre-
training baselines in similar ways.
• Resistance exercise may increase in
muscular strength and includes
favorable changes of health and
fitness.
TRAINABILITY OF WOMEN
• Women can apparently increase their strength
at the same rate as men or faster.
• High-volume or high intensity training
programs
• Free weights
• Weight machines
• Squat and bench press(complex movements)
OLDER ADAULTS
• The number of men and women over the age of 65 is
growing, and it seems that more opportunities for
participation in sports ranging from marathon to
weightlifting are available to older athletes. While the
cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength Of older
competitors or masters athletes are truly Exceptional,
even the most highly trained athletes Experience some
decline in performance after age 30.
AGE-RELATED CHANGES IN
MUSCULOSKELETAL HEALTH
• Significant changes in body composition with advancing
age can lead to the development of physical functional
impairments and injury. The well-documented loss of
bone and muscle with age not only makes activities of
daily life more difficult, but also increases the risk for falls,
hip fractures and long-term disability. Bone becomes
fragile with age because of a decrease of bone mineral
content that causes an increase in bone porosity.
RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR OLDER
ADAULTS
• Aging does not appear to enhance Or reduce the ability of the
musculoskeletal system to adapt to resistance exercise. Significant
improvements in muscular strength, power, muscle mass, bone
mineral density and functional capabilities have been observed in
older people who participated in progressive resistance training
programs. For older adults, such improvements enhance exercise
performance, decrease the risk for injury, promote independent
living, and improve quality of life. Because of the related changes
in musculoskeletal health, resistance exercise may be one of the
most beneficial modes of training for older populations who need
to enhance musculoskeletal strength, power, muscle mass, bone
mineral density, and functional abilities.
TRAINABILITY OF OLDER ADAULTS
• A great deal of attention has focused on
strategies to improve the musculoskeletal
health of older men and women. Because of
the deconditioned state of many senior,
desirable changes in muscle strength and
functions can result from a variety of resistance
training protocols, particularly during the first
few weeks of training.
PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR
OLDER ADAULTS
• Whereas aerobic exercise has been recommended for many
years as a means of increasing cardiovascular fitness,
resistance training is currently recognized as an important
component of a fitness conditioning program for older
adults. Because age-related losses of musculoskeletal
strength, power, and mass may be almost universal,
programs designed to maintain or improve musculoskeletal
health in older adults should be implemented. Not only can
regular participation in a resistance training program offset
some of these age-related losses but it can help older people
maintain an active, high-quality lifestyle.
• The fundamental principles of designing a resistance training
program for an older person and a younger person are
basically the same, but there are several concerns that
strength and conditioning professionals need to be aware of
when working with seniors. Issues regarding preexisting
medical ailments, exercise progression, and nutritional status
should be evaluated before the beginning of a resistance
training program. Even though older populations retain the
capacity to adapt to increased levels of physical activity, safe
and effective exercise guideline must be followed.