X Rays

L.O

TBAT describe the nature of

X Rays and describe the
production of X Rays

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 X Rays
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the nature of X-rays;
(b) describe in simple terms how X-rays are
produced;
(c) describe how X-rays interact with matter
(limited to photoelectric effect, Compton
Effect and pair production);
(d) define intensity as the power per unit
cross sectional
area;

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 X Rays
(e) select and use the equation I = I0 e−μx to
show how the intensity I of a collimated X-ray
beam varies with thickness x of medium;
(f) describe the use of X-rays in imaging internal
body structures including the use of image
intensifiers and of contrast media
(g) explain how soft tissues like the intestines
can be imaged using barium meal;
(h) describe the operation of a computerised
axial tomography (CAT) scanner;
(i) describe the advantages of a CAT scan
compared with an X-ray image

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 X Rays
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who
received the first Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1901

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 Nature
X-ray was the name given to the highly
penetrating rays which emanated when high
energy electrons struck a metal target.

We now know that they are high frequency

electromagnetic rays which are produced
when the electrons are suddenly
decelerated - these rays are called
bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking
radiation".

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 Nature
They are part of the
Electromagnetic spectrum.

Frequencies: 3 x 1016 Hz upward

Wavelengths: 10 nm - > downward
Quantum energies: 124 eV -> upward

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 Nature
In interactions with matter, x-rays
are ionizing radiation and produce
physiological effects which are
not observed with any exposure of
non-ionizing radiation, such as
the risk of mutations or cancer in
tissue.

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 How are X Rays made?
X-rays are produced when
electrons strike a
metal target. The
electrons are liberated
from the heated
filament and
accelerated by a high
voltage towards the
metal target. The X-
rays are produced when
the electrons collide
with the atoms and
nuclei of the metal
target.
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 Bremsstrahlung
In an X-ray tube the electrons emitted from the
cathode are accelerated towards the metal target
anode by an accelerating voltage of typically 50
kV. The high energy electrons interact with the
atoms in the metal target. Sometimes the
electron comes very close to a nucleus in the
target and is deviated by the electromagnetic
interaction. In this process, which is called
bremsstrahlung (braking radiation), the electron
looses much energy and a photon (X-ray) is
emitted. The energy of the emitted photon can
take any value up to a maximum corresponding to
the energy of the incident electron.
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 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
The electron (much
lighter than the
nucleus) comes very
close to the nucleus
and the electromagnetic
interaction causes a
deviation of the
trajectory where the
electron looses energy
and an X-ray photon is
emitted.

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 How are X Rays made?
X-rays are also produced when
electrons make transitions
between lower atomic energy
levels in heavy elements. X-
rays produced in this way have
definite energies just like
other line spectra from atomic
electrons. They are called
characteristic x-rays since
they have energies determined
by the atomic energy levels.
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 Question
Calculate the maximum frequency of
X Rays emitted by an X Ray tube
using an accelerating voltage of
330 kV. (e – 1.6x10-19C)

Why is the maximum possible

frequency?

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 Attenuation of X Rays
X rays are a type of ionising
radiation – they ionise atoms as
they pass through materials.

The gradual decrease in the

intensity of an X ray as it passes
through a material is called
attenuation.

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 Reducing Intensity
Intensity is the power per unit
cross sectional area.
( I = P/A )

The intensity of a collimated beam

of X Rays decreases as it passes
through matter

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 Visualise...
An x ray entering a block of
material.
Suppose after 1cm its intensity has
decreased by half.
By 2cm its intensity has reduced to
¼ its original value.
By 3cm its intensity has reduced to
1/8 of its original value.
(Exponential decay)
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 Representing this...
We can write an equation to represent
this (assuming uniform material)

I = I0e-μx

Where
I0 is the original intensity before
entering the material.
I is the transmitted intensity
x is the thickness if the material
μ is the attenuation or absorption
coefficient
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 Question
The attenuation coefficient of bone
is 600m-1 for X rays of energy
20KeV.
A beam of such X Rays has an
intensity of 20Wm-2. Calculate the
intensity if the beam after
passing through a 4.0mm thickness
of bone.

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 Absorption mechanisms
• Photoelectric effect

• Compton Scattering

• Pair production

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 Photoelectric Effect
An X ray photon with energy less
than 100keV is absorbed by one
electron in an atom in a target
metal.

The electron gains enough energy to

escape from the atom

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 Compton Scattering
Arthur H. Compton observed the scattering
of x-rays from electrons in a carbon
target and found scattered x-rays with
a longer wavelength than those incident
upon the target. The shift of the
wavelength increased with scattering
angle according to the Compton formula

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 Compton Scattering
Compton explained and modelled the data
by assuming a particle (photon) nature
for light and applying conservation of
energy and conservation of momentum to
the collision between the photon and
the electron. The scattered photon has
lower energy and therefore a longer
wavelength according to the Planck
relationship
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 Compton Scattering
At a time (early 1920's) when the
particle (photon) nature of light
suggested by the photoelectric effect
was still being debated, the Compton
experiment gave clear and independent
evidence of particle-like behaviour.
Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1927 for the "discovery of the
effect named after him".
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 Pair Production
A high energy X-Ray photon with
energy over 1.02 MeV passing
through the electric field of a
nucleus suddenly produces an
electron-positron pair.

It’s energy appears as the mass of

the electron and positron.

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 Pair production
The positron is very quickly
annihilated when it collides with
another electron.

This process is not important in

diagnostic x rays because the
energies used are usually too low.

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 N.B.
For all of these processes the
attenuation coefficient depends on
the proton (atomic) number of the
atom and the energy E of the
photon.

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 2D X-RAY IMAGING
In order to take an X-ray photograph the
X-ray beam is passed through a filter
to remove low energy X-ray photons
before reaching the patient because
they are more ionising and can cause
greater damage to the patient.
When X-ray photons penetrate the patient
they interact with matter and become
partly absorbed and partly scattered.
This is called attenuation.
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 2D X Rays
Heavy elements e.g. calcium are much
better absorbers than light elements
such as carbon, oxygen or hydrogen.
Structures containing heavy elements
(high Z values) such as bones attenuate
more than soft tissue and stand out
clearly (white). Soft tissues such as
fat, muscles and tumours containing the
light elements all absorb equally well
and are difficult to distinguish from
each other.
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 Taking 2D X Ray images
A shadow of the limb is
formed on a photographic
film because the bones
absorb the X Rays and
flesh does not.

To make a clear image the

beams must come from as
small an area of the
target as possible.
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 Taking 2D Images
As X Rays are harmful as they are
ionising so the tube is surrounded
by lead to prevent X Rays reaching
people near the tube.

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 Important Bits
BEAM DEFINERS: used to limit the
area of the patient being exposed
to the beam. The lead plates
absorb X Rays that would
unnecessarily reach the patient.

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 Contrast medium
This is used to produce X ray
photographs of organs or blood
vessels.

This has high absorption and

produces high contrast between
tissues on the film.
This can be swallowed or taken as
an enema.
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 Contrast medium (specific
example)
BARIUM MEAL:
This is given to patients before
having their digestive system,
throat or stomach X rayed. This
improves contrast.
You may be asked to swallow some bicarbonate powder and
citric acid before swallowing the barium. These 'fizz
up' when they mix in the stomach and make some gas.
The gas pushes the barium to coat the lining of the
stomach and duodenum. This makes the X-ray pictures
much clearer.

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