Radiography
Part 2.
Course Reference WIS 20
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Radiographic Quality
Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference
Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the
radiograph
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Penumbra Ug)
Focal spot
size
Ug= sos x ofd
ffd - ofd
fod (Ug = 0.25mm)
ofd
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Penumbra Ug)
fod Penumbra
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Penumbra Ug)
fod Penumbra
•A reduction in fod
•An increase in penumbra
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Penumbra Ug)
f
Penumbra
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Penumbra Ug)
f
Penumbra
•An increase in focal spot size
•An increase in penumbra
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Penumbra Ug)
Penumbra
ofd
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Penumbra Ug)
Penumbra
ofd
•An increase in ofd
•An increase in penumbra
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Penumbra Ug)
Source size as small as possible
Source to object distance as large as
possible
Object to film distance as small as
possible
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Penumbra Calculations
Penumbra = SOS x OFD
FFD - OFD
SOS = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275
= 4 x 25
275 - 25
Penumbra = 0.4mm
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Penumbra Calculations
Min FFD = SOS x OFD + OFD
Penumbra (0.25)
SOS = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275
= 4 x 25 + 25
0.25
Min FFD = 425mm
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Radiographic Definition
Geometric unsharpness Inherent unsharpness
• FFD/SFD too short • Coarse grain film
• OFD too large • Salt screens
• Source size too large • Wavelength too short
• Vibration/movement • Fog
• Poor screen contact
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Inherent Unsharpness
Stray electrons from
exposed crystals
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- -
- -
- -
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Exposed radiograph Adjacent crystals
with crack like indication affected by stray electrons
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Inherent Unsharpness
Large film grain size increased
inherent unsharpness
Short wavelength increased inherent
unsharpness
Loose film crystal distribution
increased inherent unsharpness
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Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between
two intensifying screens
There are three main there are three main types
of intensifying screens
•Lead screens
•Fluorescent screens
•Fluorometallic screens
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Lead Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
particulate radiation (electrons)
Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm
Frontscreen shortens exposure time and
improves quality by filtering out scatter
Back screen acts as a filter only
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Salt Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
Light radiation (Visible or UV-A)
Intensification action twice that of lead
screens
No filtration action achieved
Salt used calcium tungstate
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Fluorometallic Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate radiation
electrons)
High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Salt used calcium tungstate
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Comparison of Intensifying Screens
Screen type Order of Order of Intensification How
image speed factor intensification
quality is achieved
Lead 1 3 2-3 Electrons
Fluorescent 4 1 8-15 Light radiation
Fluorometallic 3 2 5-10 Light radiation
None 2 4 N/A None
An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six
minutes to two minutes
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Image Quality Indicators
IQI’s / Penetrameters are used to measure
radiographic sensitivity and the quality of
the radiographic technique used They are
not used to measure the size of defects
detected
Standards for IQI’s include:
BS 3971
BS EN 462
DIN 62
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Image Quality Indicators
7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
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Image Quality Indicators
Step/Hole Type IQI
Wire Type IQI
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IQI Sensitivity
Ideally IQI should be placed on the source
side
IQI sensitivity is calculated from the following
formula
Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100
Object Thickness
As a rough guild sensitivity = 2.0% or better.
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Image Quality Indicators
Thickness BS 3971 DIN 54 109 BS EN 462-2 BS EN 462-1
(mm) STEP WIRE WIRE (DIN 62) STEP/HOLE WIRE
1-6 7-12 13-18 4-10 9-15 15-21 1-7 6-12 10-16 H1 H5 H9 H 13 W1 W6 W 10 W 13
0.050 7
0.063 7 6
0.08 6 5
0.10 5 7 7 4
0.125 6 4 6 6 6 3
0.15
0.16 5 3 5 5 5 2
0.20 4 2 7 4 4 4 1
0.25 3 1 6 7 3 3 7 3
0.30
0.32 2 5 6 2 2 6 6 2
0.35
0.40 1 4 5 1 1 5 5 1
0.50 6 3 4 4 4
0.60
0.63 5 2 3 3 3
0.75
0.80 4 1 7 7 2 2 6 7 2
0.90
1.00 3 6 6 1 1 5 6 1
1.20
1.25 2 5 5 4 5
1.50 1 4
1.60 4 3 4
1.80 3
2.00 6 2 3 2 6 3
2.50 5 1 2 1 5 2
3.00
3.20 4 1 4 1
4.00 3 3
5.00 2 2
6.30 1 1
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IQI Sensitivity
A Radiograph of a 16mm thick but weld is
viewed under the correct conditions, 5 wires
visible on the radiograph IQI pack 6-12 Din
62, what is the IQI sensitivity?
Sensitivity = Thickness of thinnest wire visible X 100
Total weld thickness
Sensitivity = 0.4 X 100
16
Sensitivity = 2.5 %
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IQI Sensitivity
Using the same IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, How
many IQI wires must be visible to give an IQI
sensitivity of 2 %
Thickness of thinnest wire visible =
Sensitivity X Total weld thickness
100
= 2.0 X 16
100
= 0.32 6 wires visible
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Radiographic Definition
Definition measured by the use of a
type III I.Q.I.
Alternative terms given
•Duplex type
EN 462-5
•Cerl type B
•EN 462 part 5
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Artifacts
Static discharge
• Caused by pulling the film quickly
from between the screens in a dry
atmosphere
• The appearance is lightning like
but may appear as mottled
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Artifacts
Reticulation
• Caused by the emulsion rupturing
due to excessive temperature
differences between processing
tanks
• The appearance is a net like
structure
• It is a rare artifact due to the
flexible/plastic nature of modern
emulsions
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Artifacts
Diffraction mottle
• Occurs in a radiograph due to the
grain size or orientation of certain
materials such as stainless steels
and aluminum
• The appearance is fine porosity
throughout the weld area on the
radiograph
• It may be reduced or eliminated
by reducing the wavelength or by
changing the radiation angle by
approximately 5o
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Density Film Energy Subject Processing
contrast
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Density Film Energy Object Processing
contrast
Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing
speed
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing
speed
Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation
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Radiographic Contrast
Low contrast
Low contrast
High contrast
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Radiographic Contrast
Film Contrast Subject Contrast
Film type Density Processing Scatter Wavelength Screens
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Radiographic Contrast
Lack of Contrast Excessive Contrast
Wavelength to short Wavelength to long
Fog Incorrect developer
Prolonged development
Over exposure
Under exposure
Insufficient fixation
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Radiographic Density
Incident light
Density = Log10
Transmitted light
If the transmitted light is 1/10 of the incident light
Density = 1.0
If the transmitted light is 1/100 of the incident light
Density = 2.0
If the transmitted light is 1/1000 of the incident light
Density = 3.0
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Radiographic Density
Lack of Density Excessive Density
Under exposure Over exposure
Developer temp too low Excessive development
Exhausted developer Developer temp too high
Developer too weak Too strong a solution
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Measuring Radiographic Density
Density is measured by a densitometer
A densitometer should be calibrated
using a density strip
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
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