Chapter 6

Chromosomes and Cell

Reproduction
Objectives
 Students will
– Understand how organisms, eukaryotic and
prokaryotic, reproduce
– Explain the structure of chromosomes and know
how changes in chromosome number affects
organisms
– Describe the cell cycle including all phases of
mitosis
– Know important structures of the cell that aid in
cell division
6-1 Chromosomes

 3 Different forms of cell division

– Bacterial cells undergoing reproduction
– Eukaryotic cells undergoing growth,
development, repair, or asexual
reproduction
– Formation of gametes
Bacterial cells divide to
reproduce
 Bacterial cell DNA is circular and is
attached to the inner cell membrane
 Binary fission: a form of asexual
reproduction that produces identical
offspring.
 Binary Fission
 Occurs in 2 Stages
1- The DNA is copied (so each new cell will have a
copy of DNA)
2- The cell divides
- divides by adding a new cell membrane to a
point on the membrane between the 2 DNA
copies
- a new material is added, the growing cell
membrane pushes inward and the cell is
constricted in the middle.
- a new cell wall forms around the new
membrane.
- eventually it is pinched into 2 cells.
 Definitions
 gene: a segment of DNA that codes
for a protein or RNA molecule. (a
single molecule of DNA has thousands
of genes linedup)
 Chromatid: 2 exact copies of DNA that
make up each chromosome.
 Chromosome: a very long DNA molecule
and associated proteins, that carry portions
of the hereditary information of an organism.
 Centromere: the point at which the 2
chromatids of a chromosome are attached.
 Somatic Cell: all cells that are not sex cells.
– Human somatic cells have 2 copies of 23
chromosomes totaling 46 chromosomes.
 Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes
that are similar in size, shape and genetic
content.
– Each homologue (one in a pair) comes from one
of 2 parents.
 Diploid: cells containing 2 sets of
chromosomes.
– Example: somatic cells
 Haploid: a cell containing 1 set of
chromosomes.
– Example: gametes
– Fertilization: fusion of 2 haploid cells forming a
diploid cell.
 Autosomes: chromosomes not
involved in determining gender.
– out of 23 chromosomes- 22 are
autosomes in humans.
 Sex Chromosomes: one of the 23
pairs of chromosomes in humans.
 Change in chromosome #: people
missing chromosomes do not survive.
– People can have too many defects
– Ex: trisomy 21
 Nondisjunction: failure of chromosomes to
separate 1 daughter cell has 2 and one
daughter cell has none.
Karyotype
 A photo of the chromosomes in a
dividing cell that shows the
chromosomes arranged by size.
Change in Chromosome
structure (mutations-4
types)
 Deletion: a piece of chromosome breaks off
completely
 Duplication: chromosome fragment
attaches to its homologous chromosome,
which will then carry 2 copies of a certain
set of genes.
 Inversion: the chromosome piece
reattaches to the original chromosome but
in reverse orientation.
 Translocation: if the piece reattaches to a
nonhomologous chromosome.
 6-2 The Cell Cycle

 Definition: a repeating sequence of

cellular growth and division during the
life of an organism.
 Cells spend 90% of their lives in
INTERPHASE
 A cell will only leave interphase when
it is about to divide.
INTERPHASE (3 phases)

 First growth (G1) phase: cells rapidly

grow carrying out routine functions
(most often, cells are here the
longest). Cells not dividing remain in
G1
 Some somatic cells (muscle cells)
never divide.
 Synthesis (S) phase: cells DNA is
copied during this phase. At the end of
this phase, each chromosome consists
of 2 chromatids attached at the
centromere.
 Second growth (G2) phase:
preparations are made for the nucleus
to divide.
– Microtubules are assembled.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Overview
 Mitosis: the process during cell division in
which the nucleus of a cell is divided into 2
nuclei. Each nucleus ends up with the
same # and kinds of chromosomes as the
original cell.
 Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides
 At the end of cytokinesis a new cell is
produces that is identical to the original cell.
 The Cell Cycle is Carefully
Controlled
 The cell cycle has key checkpoints at which
feedback signals from the cell can trigger the
next phase of the cell cycle.
 3 check points:
– Cell growth (G1) checkpoint: Decides if the cell will
divide. If optimal proteins will stimulate the “S”
phase. If unfavorable, the cell cycle will stop.
– DNA Synthesis (G2) checkpoint: DNA replication is
checked at this point. If it passes, mitosis begins.
– Mitosis checkpoint: triggers the exit from mitosis.
Signals the beginning of G1
When Control is Lost =
Cancer
 Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of
cells (proteins do not work properly)
6-3 Mitosis and
Cytokinesis
In Mitosis, Chromatids are
pulled by Microtubules
 Every second ~2 million new RBC are
produced in your body by mitosis in your
bone marrow.
 During Mitosis, the chromatids on each
chromosome are physically moved to
opposite sides of the dividing cell with the
help of the spindle.
– Spindle: cell structures made up of both
centrioles and individual microtubule fibers that
are involved in moving chromosomes during cell
division.
Forming the Spindle
 Animal cells usually have 1 pair of centrioles
with the centrioles at Right angles to each
other.
 During the G2 phase the centriole pair is
replicated so that the cell has 2 pairs of
centrioles as it enters mitosis.
 When Mitosis starts the 2 pairs separate,
moving to opposite poles.
– As this happens, the spindles start to form.
 Centrioles and spindle fibers are made
of hollow tubes of protein called
microtubles.
– Each spindle fiber is made of an individual
microtubules
– Each centriole is made up nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a circle.
 Plant cells don’t have centrioles but
form spindles in a similar way.
Separating chromatids by
attaching spindle fibers
 Some spindle microtubules interact with
each other, others attach to a protein found
with in the centromere.
 1 microtubules attach at different poles,
when this happens the 2 chromatids are
separated.
 The ends of the spindle at the poles are
broken down bit by bit and the chromatids
are dragged toward the poles.
 As soon as the sister chromatids
separate, they are called
“chromosomes”
– When the chromosomes arrive at the
poles, each pole has a complete set of
chromosomes.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Divide Cells
 Mitosis (4 Stages)
– Prophase: Chromosomes coil up and
become visible during prophase. The
nuclear envelope dissolves and spindles
form.
– Metaphase: chromosomes move to the
center of the cell and line up along the
equator. Spindle fibers link the
chromatids of each chromosome to
opposite poles.
– Anaphase: centromeres divide. The 2
chromatids (now called chromosomes)
move toward opposite
 Telophase: nuclear envelope forms
around chromosomes at each pole.
Chromosomes now at opposite poles,
uncoil and spindle fibers dissolve.
 Cytokinesis:
– Cytoplasm is divided in half
– Cel membrane grows enclosing each new
cell
– In animals cells (cells without cell walls)
the cell is pinched in half by a belt of
protein threads
– Plant cells: vesicles formed by Golgi fuse
at the midline of the dividing cell and form
a cell plate. A new cell wall forms on each
side of the cell plate.
Cytokinesis