Ex
Direction of Propagation k
x
z z
y
By
An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time
varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each
other and the direction of propagation, z.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Reflected
B = Low refractive index
Reflected
transparent film (n 2)
light
n1
n2 n1 FTIR Incident
TIR n1
i > c i > c light
Transmitted
Incident
(a ) A light (b)
C A
Glass prism
(a) A light incident at the long face of a glass prism suffers TIR; the prism deflects the
light.
(b) Two prisms separated by a thin low refractive index film forming a beam-splitter cube.
The incident beam is split into two beams by FTIR.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Amplitude
P Q
(a)
Time
Amplitude
t l = ct
(b)
Time Space
= 1/t
Field
(c) Q Amplitude
P Time
(a) A sine wave is perfectly coherent and contains a well-defined frequency o. (b) A finite
wave train lasts for a duration t and has a length l. Its frequency spectrum extends over
= 1/t. It has a coherence time t and a coherence length l. (c) White light exhibits
practically no coherence.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
y
S1 A2
S1
s
S2 S2
A1 L
I
Screen
Resolution of imaging systems is limited by diffraction effects. As points S1 and S2
get closer, eventually the Airy disks overlap so much that the resolution is lost.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Light Light
n2
Light Light
n2
n1 > n 2
A planar dielectric waveguide has a central rectangular region of
higher refractive indexn 1 than the surrounding region which has
a refractive index n2 . It is assumed that the waveguide is
infinitely wide and the central region is of thickness a2. It is
illuminated at one end by a monochromatic light source.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
n2
A
B y
1
E
2a z
k1 C x
A
n1 1
2
n2 B
Two arbitrary waves 1 and 2 that are initially in phase must remain in phase
after reflections. Otherwise the two will interfere destructively and cancel each
other.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
y
n2 Cladding
m=1 m=2
m=0 Core
E(y) 2a
n1
n2 Cladding
The electric field patterns of the first three modes (m = 0, 1, 2)
traveling wave along the guide. Notice different extents of field
penetration into the cladding.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
High order mode Low order mode
Broadened
Cladding light pulse
Light pulse
Intensity Core
Intensity
Axial
Spread,
t t
0
Schematic illustration of light propagation in a slab dielectric waveguide. Light pulse
entering the waveguide breaks up into various modes which then propagate at different
group velocities down the guide. At the end of the guide, the modes combine to
constitute the output light pulse which is broader than the input light pulse.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Intensity
t
Output light pulse
z
n1 y // y Core Ex
= Pulse spread
Ex Ey
n1 x // x Ey
t
E
Input light pulse
Suppose that the core refractive index has different values along two orthogonal
directions corresponding to electric field oscillation direction (polarizations). We can
take x and y axes along these directions. An input light will travel along the fiber with Ex
and Ey polarizations having different group velocities and hence arrive at the output at
different times
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Dispersion coefficient (ps km -1 nm-1)
30 n
20
r
Dm
10
0
1 2
-10 Dch = D m + Dw
-20 Dw Thin layer of cladding
with a depressed index
-30
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
(m)
Dispersion flattened fiber example. The material dispersion coefficient ( Dm) for the
core material and waveguide dispersion coefficient ( Dw ) for the doubly clad fiber
result in a flattened small chromatic dispersion between 1 and 2.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
E2 E2 E2
h h
h h In
Out
h
E1 E1 E1
(a) Absorption (b) Spontaneous emission (c) Stimulated emission
Absorption, spontaneous (random photon) emission and stimulated
emission.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Energy of the Er 3 + ion
in the glass fiber
1.54 eV E 3
1.27 eV E3
Non-radiative decay
980 nm Pump E2
0.80 eV
1550 nm 1550 nm
Out
In
0 E1
Energy diagram for the Er3+ ion in the glass fiber medium and light amplification
by stimulated emission from E 2 to E1. Dashed arrows indicate radiationless
transitions (energy emission by lattice vibrations)
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Er3+ -doped
fiber (10 - 20 m)
Optical Wavelength-selective Optical
isolator coupler isolator
Signal in Splice Splice Signal out
= 1550 nm = 1550 nm
Pump laser diode Termination
= 980 nm
A simplified schematic illustration of an EDFA (optical amplifier). The
erbium-ion doped fiber is pumped by feeding the light from a laser pump
diode, through a coupler, into the erbium ion doped fiber.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
P o (mW)
10 0 C 50 C
8 25 C
0 I (mA)
0 20 40 60 80
Output optical power vs. diode current as three different temperatures. The
threshold current shifts to higher temperatures.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
y
Plane of polarization
E
x ^
Ey y
^ ^
x xE x
Ex
^
yE
E y
z E
(a ) (b) (c )
(a) A linearly polarized wave has its electric field oscillations defined along a line
perpendicular to the direction of propagation,z. The field vector E and z define a plane of
polarization. (b) The E-field oscillations are contained in the plane of polarization. (c) A
linearly polarized light at any instant can be represented by the superposition of two fieldsEx
and Ey with the right magnitude and phase.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Ecos
Linearly
Light detector
polarized light E TA 2
TA 1
Polarizer 2 = Analyzer
Polarizer 1
Unpolarized light
Randomly polarized light is incident on a Polarizer 1 with a transmission axis TA 1. Light
emerging from Polarizer 1 is linearly polarized with E along TA 1, and becomes incident
on Polarizer 2 (called "analyzer") with a transmission axis TA 2 at an angle to TA 1. A
detector measures the intensity of the incident light. TA 1 and TA 2 are normal to the light
direction.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
e-ray
e-ray
o-ray Optic axis A E1
B
A
Optic axis E1
E2
E1 E2
E2 B
Optic axis
Optic axis o-ray
The Wollaston prism is a beam polarization splitter. E 1 is orthogonal to the plane of
the paper and also to the optic axis of the first prism. E 2 is in the plane of the paper
and orthogonal to E 1.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
E Levo Dextro
E
E E
z
z z
Quartz
L Optic axis
An optically active material such as quartz rotates the plane of polarization
of the incident wave: The optical field E rotated to E. If we reflect the
wave back into the material, E rotates back to E.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
V y
Ey Ey
Input d
light Ea x z Output
light
Ex Ex
z
Tranverse Pockels cell phase modulator. A linearly polarized input light
into an electro-optic crystal emerges as a circularly polarized light.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Coplanar strip electrodes
V(t)
Thin buffer layer
Polarized d
input
light
L
Ea LiNbO 3
LiNbO 3 EO Substrate x Waveguide Cross-section
z
y
Integrated tranverse Pockels cell phase modulator in which a waveguide is diffused
into an electro-optic (EO) substrate. Coplanar strip electrodes apply a transverse
field E a through the waveguide. The substrate is an x-cut LiNbO3 and typically there
is a thin dielectric buffer layer (e.g. ~200 nm thick SiO2) between the surface
electrodes and the substrate to separate the electrodes away from the waveguide.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
V(t)
Electrode
C B
Out
B
In D
A A
Waveguide
LiNbO 3 EO Substrate
An integrated Mach-Zender optical intensity modulator. The input light is
split into two coherent waves A and B, which are phase shifted by the
applied voltage, and then the two are combined again at the output.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)