Unit1: Vehicle Performance
• Classification of Engines, their characteristics and selections
• Resistance to motion of vehicles by Air, Rolling friction and Gradient
resistance
• Power requirement for accelerations
• Selection of suitable Rear axle and Gear ratios
Introduction
• An automobile is a self-propelled vehicle driven by an internal combustion
engine
• Used for transportation of goods and passengers on ground.
• Automobile engineering is the study of engineering aspects and technical
details of cars.
• During the past century, tremendous development in this field has taken
place. Apart from cars, vehicles for different usage have been developed.
• This course is mainly deals with study of CARS, and also some of other
relevant forms of automobiles meant for allied purposes will be covered
Types of Engines
• Engine is the source of power
• It converts explosive power of fuel and air mixture into rotating power
to drive the automobile
• Power of the engine determines working of the automobile
• Efficiency of engines determines efficiency of automobiles
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINES
Engines are classified in many Ways
1. Number of Cylinders
2. Cylinder Arrangement
3. Valve Arrangement in Cylinder Head Assembly
4. Cooling Methods
5. Fuel Used
6. Thermodynamic Cycles
7. Mechanical Cycles
8. Ignition System
Classification Based on No of Cylinders
• Single-cylinder Engine: Cylinder may be vertical or horizontal
• Multi-cylinder Engine Cylinders may be vertical or inclined to
vertical plane.
The pistons of all the cylinders are connected to the common
crankshaft.
Classification Based on Cylinders Arrangement
• In-line Cylinder Engine: It is multi-cylinder engine, with all the cylinders
arranged in one straight line. Each cylinder has an independent crank
Classification Based on Cylinders Arrangement
• V Cylinder Engine or V Engine : It has
two cylinders inclined at 90° to each other
as shown in Fig. The connecting rods are
connected to a common crank pin. There
is a common crank for both cylinders
• V-8 Engine: There are two blocks
inclined at 90° to each other and each
block has four cylinders
Classification Based on Valve Arrangement in Cylinder Head Assembly
• T-head Engine: Valves are arranged as shown in Fig. The suction
valve (SV) and the exhaust valve (EV) are on the cylinder block in
opposite directions.
• F-head Engine: One valve is in the cylinder block and the other valve
is in the cylinder head as shown in Fig.
Classification Based on Valve Arrangement in Cylinder Head Assembly
• L-head Engine: Suction and exhaust valves are arranged side by side
in the cylinder block as shown in Fig.
• I-head Engine: Suction and exhaust valves are arranged in the
cylinder head as shown in Fig.
Classification Based on Valve Arrangement in Cylinder Head Assembly
• Overhead Engine: Suction and exhaust
valves are arranged in the cylinder head.
• The cylinder head has a hemispherical
shape as shown in Fig.
• The difference between the I-head and
overhead valve engines is that the I-
head valves are actuated by push rods
whereas the overhead valves are
actuated by the cams located above the
cylinder head.
Classification Based on Cooling Methods
• Air-cooled Engines: Air-cooled
engines have fins to radiate heat into the
surrounding air.
• The fins are made triangular in shape as
they increase the cooling surface area.
• Fins are made of aluminium, which is a
good conductor of heat.
• Air-cooled engines run at higher
temperatures because air is not a good
conductor of heat. Figure
Classification Based on Cooling Methods
• Water-cooled Engines: These Engines require circulation of water.
• All automobile engines, which are water-cooled, are fitted with
radiators as shown in Fig.
Classification Based on Cooling Methods
• Gasoline Engine: Gasoline (petrol) is used as fuel. A mixture of
gasoline and air is prepared outside the cylinder and an electric spark
plug is used to initiate combustion of the compressed charge.
• Diesel Engine: The diesel engine utilizes a compressed mixture of air
and diesel prepared inside the cylinder as fuel. The heat of compression
is utilized to initiate combustion of the mixture.
• Gas Engine: In the gas engine combustible gases are used as fuel.
These engines are not commonly used in automobiles
Classification Based on Thermodynamic Cycle
• Constant volume combustion cycle engine, which is also called Otto
cycle engine.
• Constant pressure combustion cycle engine, which is also called
Diesel cycle engine.
• Mixed cycle engine which has partial combustion at constant volume
and partial combustion at constant pressure.
Classification Based on Mechanical Cycles
• Two-stroke Cycle Engine: The two-stroke engine completes
thermodynamic cycle in two strokes of the piston (one revolution of
the crank).
• Four-stroke Cycle Engine: The engine which completes its
thermodynamic cycle in four strokes of the piston (two revolutions of
the crank) is a four-stroke cycle engine.
Classification Based on Ignition System
• Spark Ignition Engine A spark ignition engine is either a gasoline
engine or a gas engine. The electrical energy required to produce spark
in the spark plug is obtained either from a battery or a magneto.
• Compression Ignition Engine: Compression ignition engines are
diesel engines in which air is highly compressed to raise its
temperature and initiate combustion when diesel fuel is injected
Selection of Engines
• Two-stroke cycle gasoline engines are used in light duty automobiles
like mopeds, scooters etc.
• Two-stroke cycle diesel engines are used in medium duty automobiles
like tempos etc.
• Four-stroke cycle gasoline and diesel engines with splash and pressure
lubrication are used in heavy duty automobiles like trucks, buses, cars,
delivery vans etc.
• Cars are provided with four-stroke gasoline engines with splash and
pressure lubrication systems.
Selection of Engines
• The inline engine is vertical, i.e. the stroke of the pistons is vertical.
Such inline vertical engines are used in cars, buses, trucks etc.
• V-engines have cylinders at 90° and are used in heavy duty motor
cycles, which are designed for long run.
• Single-cylinder horizontal engines are used in scooters and mopeds.
This engine is so located that the cylinder head is towards the front of
the scooter or moped.
Selection of Engines
• Why single-cylinder two-stroke/four stroke air-cooled petrol engine on
two-wheelers
• Reasons for using multi-cylinder diesel engine for commercial
vehicles
Resistance to Motion of Vehicle
• Resistance a vehicle faces while attempting to move from a stall condition
or while accelerating
• To sustain motion-This resistance must be overcome by the powerplant of
the engine.
If Power produced < Resistance to motion
Vehicle will gradually slow down.
• We must have experienced the slowing down of bicycles if we stop
pedaling.
• The bicycle also slows down if we go uphill or if wind blows from front. A
poorly inflated tire also causes the vehicle to groan more and slow down.
These are the resistances that force the vehicle to slow down under their
effect.
Resistance to Motion of Vehicle
• The major components of the resisting forces to motion are comprised
of :
• Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
• Force Due to Rolling (FR )
• Gradeability requirements (Fg)
• Force Due to Moving or Static Inertia (FI ).
F Faero Frr Fg FI
• The last one FI comes into the picture only when the vehicle accelerates
or decelerates, while the first three always offer a resistance even when
the vehicle is moving at a constant speed
Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
• When a body travels within a dense medium, the molecules of the
medium collide with the moving object and thereby absorb some of
the energy. This is felt as a resistance to the moving object.
• If the medium is denser, then the resistance is more. Also when the
object moves at a faster speed, the resistance increases proportionately.
where Cd = Co−efficient of drag = 0.6
Faero Cd AV 2
A = Frontal Area Of Vehicle
V = Velocity of the vehicle
Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
Aerodynamic loads (Faero)
Gradient Resistance (Fg)
• When the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight works in a
direction opposite to its motion
• If some energy is not supplied to overcome this backward force, then the
vehicle would slow down, stall and roll backwards.
• If the vehicle is trading uphill at a slope of θ, then the weight of the
vehicle, W has two components: one perpendicular to the road surface
(with a value W·Cos θ) and the other along the road surface (with a value
W·Sin θ)
• The gradient resistance is given by:
Fg = W·Sin θ
Rolling Resistance (Fr)
• When a vehicle rolls, it rolls with its tires in contact with the road
surface
• Relative motion of two hard surfaces produces a friction.
• Further, neither the road, nor the tire are perfectly rigid. Hence, both
flex under the load slightly slightly.
• As there is a gradual deformation at the contact between the road and
the tire, greatest at the bottom most point and least at the entry and exit
points, the slip of the tire w.r.t. the road produces another type of loss
of energy which results in a resistance.
Rolling Resistance (Fr)
• Rolling resistance is composed of the following components:
• Tire Rolling resistance: Fr ,T
• Road rolling resistance: Fr,Tr
• Resistance due to tire slip angle: Fr,a
• Resistance due to bearing friction and residual braking: Fr,fr
• Hence the rolling resistance offered may be written as:
Fr =Fr ,T +Fr,Tr, + Fr,a +Fr,fr
Rolling Resistance And Drag Forces Versus Velocity