METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Welding Module

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

A Brief History of Welding

• Late 19th Century
− Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat
and/or join metals (Le Chatelier, Joule, etc.)
• Early 20th Century
− Prior to WWI welding was not trusted as a method to join two
metals due to crack issues
• 1930’s and 40’s
− Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used extensively
in the war effort to build tanks, aircraft, ships, etc.
• Modern Welding
− the nuclear/space age helps bring welding from an art to a
science

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Cameron Arc Welding Processes

• Welding processes that employ an electric arc are the most
prevalent in industry

− Shielded Metal Arc Welding

− Gas Metal Arc Welding

− Flux Cored Arc Welding

− Submerged Arc Welding

− Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Principles of Arc Welding

Step
Step 3: Gas from the
Step 1:
2: Electricity
Arc generates
electrode consumable
Welding
flows
heat upfrom the power
to 6,500F to lead cable

protects
source the
thru weld
the base&
melt the base metal
puddle
metal tofrom oxidation
promote the
the electrode.
as
[Link] forms also on
top of the puddle.
Return
Slag layer lead cable

Weld
Power
supply

Base Metal

[Link]
anim1r1_version%[Link]

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Weld Arc Physics

Anode
Step 1:
+ contact to close
electrical circuit
Positive gas ion

Electron (current)
+ -
+ -
+ - Step 2:
Protective gas becomes
_ ionized and serves to
conduct electricity.

Cathode

An electric arc occurs in the gas filled space between the electrode
wire and the work piece

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

1. Consumable
electrode.

2. Flux provides
the protective
slag layer for
the weld pool.

3. Weld rod melts

an deposits
weld metal on
the welded
joint.

Example of the consumable

electrodes
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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

GMAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding
1. Consumable
electrode fed
thru the center
of the gun in
the form of a
solid wire.

2. Gas flows
around the gun
providing the
protective layer
to the weld
pool.

GMAW electrodes are commonly packaged on

spools, reels and coils ranging from 1lb to 1000lbs

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

GMAW Circuit
Three things happen
when the GMAW gun
trigger is pulled:

1. The wire electrode

begins to feed

2. The circuit becomes

electrically ‘hot

3. Shielding gas flows

through the gun and
out the nozzle

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

FCAW
Flux Cored Arc Welding
1. Metal-cored wire
carries the
current through
the outside metal
sheath to create
a wide
penetration
profile.

2. Excellent for
welding in windy
conditions.

Cored metal wire creates

broad cone shaped arc.

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

TIG
Tungsten Inert Gas
1. Tungsten
electrode acts
as a torch .

2. Gas flows
around the gun
providing the
protective layer
to the weld
pool.

3. Separate
consumable rod
can be
introduced into
the arc to
provide weld
metal.

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

SAW
Submerged Arc Welding
1. Wire is fed thru
the center of
the gun.

2. Instead of gas,
flux is fed by air
pressure thru
the handle of
the gun or from
a separate
mounted
hopper.

More effective on flat 3. High

geometries deposition
rates are
possible.

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Flux/Protective Gas Variables

Effect of Protective Gas on Weld Clad
Typical fluxes Protective Gases
Deposition
SMAW slag layer

• SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3 • Argon, helium, nitrogen, and

carbon dioxide

• Produces a gaseous shield to • Form a protective envelope

prevent contamination around the weld area

• Used in Submerged weld flux

• Act as scavengers to reduce
− MIG
oxides
− TIG
− Shield Metal Arc
• Add alloying elements to the
weld
Ar Ar- He CO
• Influence shape of weld bead
duringHe
solidification
2

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Weld Metallurgy
l
Base Meta

Bas
eM
HAZ HAZ
Heat Heat

eta
Affected Affected

l
Zone Zone

Fast Cooling Fast Cooling

Weld Metal

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Understanding the Heat Affected Zone

(HAZ)
High heat input
causes hardened
zones around the
weld

The heat gradient is reflectedNote the heat

by a hardness gradient that
must be reduced gradient

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Implications of HAZ- Carbon Alloy Steels

4130
F65
F22 4130
F65
F22

Z
HA

HA
Z
F22 alloy composition
indicates
4130 alloy
highcomposition
hardenability
has
F65 is a plain carbon steel
alloy
less hardenability
& an HAZ problem.
than F22,
with low hardenability, hence
but still has an HAZ problem.
no HAZ problem.

Alloy %C %Cr %Mo %Ni %Mn Others Fe

Alloy
Alloy %C
%C %Cr
%Cr %Mo
%Mo %Ni
%Ni %Mn
%Mn Others
Others Fe Fe

F22 .10 to
F65
restricted
.20
.15
.50
2.50 .30
1.13 .70
.50 1.40
.60 V, Cu,
V,B,Nb etc. Ti Balance
Balance

4130 .30 1.10 .25 - 1.0 residual Balance

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Weldability of Carbon Alloy Steels

Characterized by Carbon Equivalence (CE)

Carbon
Alloy %C %Cr %Mo %Ni %Mn Others Fe equivalent
CE

F65 .12 .50 .30 .70 1.40 V, Cu, Ti Balance .52

4130 .30 1.10 .25 - 1.0 residual Balance .74

F22 .10 to 2.50 1.13 .50 .60 V,B,Nb Balance .95

restricted .15 etc.

CIIw = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15

1. For CE%<0.14    Excellent weldability, no special precautions

necessary

 2. 0.14<CE%<0.45    Martensite is more likely to form, and modest

preheats with low hydrogen electrodes become necessary

 3. CE%>0.45    Extreme complications, weld cracking is very likely,

hence preheat in the range 100-400°C and low hydrogen electrodes are
required

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Mapping the HAZ Hardness Profile HRC

Requirements for
PWHT

1. Hard zones in
HAZ & weld
must be
reduced.

2. PWHT will bring

down hardness

3. Challenge is to
lower HAZ
hardness & not
significantly
affect base
metal hardness

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

PWHT Requirements
Welding of Low Alloy Carbon Steels

F22 F22

Heating bands

Temper versus PWHT

can be used to
stress relieve
locally
T
e
600 Temper
m Stress
p 450
Relief Temper
e 300
r 150
a At least 10C
t 0 between both
u 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 temperatures
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
r
e
Time

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Welding Procedure Qualification

Weld coupon used to certify
Why?
procedure with full qualification
of properties & hardness.
1. Forgings properties can be
verified by actual
mechanical & hardness
properties either on QTC
or sacrificial.

2. Welds on the other hand

can only be verified by
correlating to hardness
properties; hence the
importance of the
procedure qualification.

3. Effectiveness of the stress

relieve procedures
demonstrated by the
hardness profile & the
mechanical properties.

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

An extremely
The weld/HAZimportant part of NACE
is a heterogeneous Part 2:
structure
Annex A has toto
sensitive domicro-hardness
with Welding Qualifications
readings

Hardness tests on weld PQR’s must be

carried out using Vickers HV10, HV 5
Note the difference or Rockwell 15N unless:
in the HRC & HV The issue is that 250 HV = 22
readings HRC for a homogeneous
• Otherwise agreed upon with
structure. The weld metal/HAZ
equipment supplier, or
is non-homogeneous and
sensitive to the
• smaller vickers
the design stress does not
imprint. exceed 2/3 SMYS & PWHT is
employed; then the use of
Weld Rockwell C is permitted. Refer
Base Metal HAZ fusion zone to section [Link]

• All Cameron weld PWR’s for API 6A

& 16A equipment have been
qualified using Rockwell C.

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Welding Dissimilar Metals

F65 is sensitive to
Buttering
the PSHT
temperatures of
F22.
1. The strategy is to
PWHT after
F22
F22 F65 buttering the carbon
alloy end.

2. The second step

would be to weld to
the carbon steel
with no PWHT.

F65
F22 Buttering with
625 nickel alloy

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Buttering Sequence

Closure
2
1
4
3

Bu ld
Weld

We
tte
Low Alloy 2nd Dissimilar

r
Steel Base Metal

Butter
Machine
Make Weld
Closure
Weld
+ PWHT
Prep
Weld

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Some Buttering Failures Case Histories

Carbon steel buttering
Int
Leaks e
rfa
detected at all ce h
oy a
joint of 8630 co s lo
nte we
nt r
hub & X60
pipe

1. Diffusion of chromium and

carbon at the interface
caused carbides.

2. Hard carbides susceptible

to hydrogen embrittlement.
• BP Thunderhorse Manifolds 8630/625 8630
butter joints cracked 2007 creating
leaks.

in
te
• Similar failures in Statoil Asgard.

rfa
ce
• Failures instigated by CP & hard zones
in diffusion interface between base
metal & butter.
625 weld metal

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Weld Cladding/Overlay

Corrosion Enhanced
Low Alloy Resistant Corrosion
Steel Overlay Resistant
HH trim

Cameron equipment requiring

upgrade to HH trim is clad
with 625

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Two Methods of Clad Deposition

Horizontal TIG Vertical TIG
Twin Wire

Excellent for Seal areas

pipe

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Examples of Pipe Cladding

Horizontal Twin Wire Lines
GOM Jumper

Typically two layers

of 625 weld metal
applied

GOM 4 Slot Manifold

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Examples of Vertical TIG

Angola Tree

Seal areas of valves & flanges are internally clad

Tree, valves …. Vertical TIG stations

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

Fe dilution Effect on Clad Components

Heat input from welding
causes some diffusion of
the base metal Fe into the
layer of the clad metal.
Clad 625
Dilution
HAZ
Choice & control of protective gas an
important variable to control
penetration & dilution.

Base Metal

Fe= 5%
Fe= 10% He
Two options depending on Ar Ar-He CO2
requirements.

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 METALLURGY DEPARTMENT

SHELL BONGA CLAD INDUCTION

BEND CRACKING

Excessive dilution caused incompatibility between the nickel

alloy and the carbon steel alloy in the form of a hard martensitic
phase susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.

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