An Introduction to

Renewable Energy

Frank R. Leslie,
B. S. E. E., M. S. Space Technology
10/10/2002, Rev. 1.4
fleslie@[Link]; (321) 674-7377
[Link]@[Link]; (321) 768-6629
 Energy Categories

Fossil Renewable

Conventional Coal Wood

Oil Hydro
Gas Human/Animal
Alternative Oil Shale Wind Solar Biomass
Tar Sands Wave/Tide Ocean Current
Geothermal

 Sustainable means using less than is renewed; if water is

withdrawn from a dam faster than it is refilled, the level drops and
power is lessened
Revised 030109
 Energy Categories
Overview of Energy Types

 Conventional energies are from wood, coal, oil, and hydro

 Alternative energy is nonconventional
 Sustainable energy has a usage rate is less than the rate that can
be maintained; Madagascar deforestation (40% fuel wood)
 Renewable energy is sustainable indefinitely, unlike long-stored
energy from fossil fuels that will be depleted
 Biomass combustion is also renewable, but emits CO2 and
pollutants
 Nuclear energy is not renewable, but sometimes is treated as
though it were because of the extremely long depletion period

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 What’s Renewable Energy?

 Renewable energy systems transform incoming solar energy and its

primary alternate forms (wind and river flow), usually without
pollution-causing combustion
 This energy is “renewed” by the sun and is “sustainable”
 Renewable energy from wind, solar, or ocean energy emits no
pollution or carbon dioxide (although the building of the
components does)
 Biomass can be heated with water under pressure to create
synthetic fuel gas (synfuel); can add grass or brush to coal burners
 Fuel combustion produces “greenhouse gases” that are believed to
lead to climate change (global warming), thus combustion of
biomass is not as desirable as other energy forms

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 Energy Considerations for
2050
 Fossil-fuel energy will
deplete in the future;
took millions of years to
create that much fuel
 US oil production
peaked about 1974;
world energy will peak
about 2004-9 or so
 Renewable energy will
eventually become
mandatory, and our
lifestyles may change US 2000
 Transition to renewable Yourenergyfuture.
org
energy must occur well
before a crisis occurs

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 The Eventual Decline
of Fossil Fuels

 Millions of years of incoming solar energy were captured

in the form of coal, oil, and natural gas; current usage
thus exceeds the rate of original production (0.02%)
 Coal may last 230 years; estimates vary greatly; not as
useful for transportation due to thermal losses in
converting to convenient liquid “synfuel”
 We can conserve energy by reducing loads and through
increased efficiency in generating, transmitting, and
using energy
 Efficiency and conservation will delay an energy crisis,
but will not prevent it

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 The Hubbert Curve Predicts
Fossil Fuel Decline
 Dr. M. King Hubbert,
geophysicist,
published his
prediction that the US
oil peak would be
reached in 1970.
Later, others predicted
the World oil peak
would occur in the
first decade of the
21st Century.
 Past the production
peak, oil prices will
increase as extraction [Link]/[Link]

becomes more difficult

and the price is bid
up.
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 Where Does Our Local
Electricity Come From?

 Our local utility, FPL, lists these for the 12

months ended May 2002:
 Petroleum, 21%
 Nuclear, 24%
 Natural Gas, 21% Cape Canaveral Plant, photo by F. Leslie, 2001

 Purchased Power (various sources), 19%

 Coal, 7%
 Any renewables are in the Purchased Power
category
 Will we “export our pollution” to other states
as California does?

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 Solar Energy

 Energy from our sun (1372 W/m^2) is filtered through

the atmosphere and is received at the surface at ~1000
watts per square meter or less; average is 345 W/m^2
 Air, clouds, and haze reduce the received surface energy
 Capture is from heat (thermal energy) and by
photovoltaic cells yielding direct electrical energy
 Solar “constant” varies

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 How Much Solar Energy
Strikes Earth?
The sun gives off 3.90x1026 Watts (Universe 4th edition, p585)

The earth intercepts energy equal to a disk equal to the earth's

diameter

Earth's radius is 3,393,000 meters (WGS84 value is 6,378,137/2 m)

Earth's solar interception area is (3.14)(3,393,000)^2

This equals 3.62x1013 m2

The amount of power crossing earth's orbit is 1388 watts / m 2

Therefore: the earth intercepts 5.02x1016 watts

We see that the earth intercepts 50 quadrillion watts of solar power

each day.
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 Variations in Surface Energy
Affect Potential Capture

 A flat-plate absorber aimed normal to the sun (directly

at it) will receive energy according to the amount of
atmosphere along the path (overhead air mass Ξ 1)
 The received energy varies around the World due to
local cloud attenuation; in Florida, direct normal
radiation is 4.0 to 4.5 kWh/(m2 - day)
 Throughout the Contiguous United States, daily solar
energy varies from <3.0 to 7.0 kWh/(m2 - day)

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 Solar Energy: Thermal
 Low-temperature extraction of heat from ground; ~70° F to 80° F
 Water heating for home and business; ~90° F to 120° F
 High-temperature process-heating water for industry; ~200° F to 400° F
 Solar thermal power plants; ~1000° F

From [Link]/education/story/story-images/[Link]
Arizona has clearer skies than Florida. Ref.: Innovative Power Systems
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 Insolation in Melbourne/ Palm
Bay Area
 The annual solar energy available in Palm Bay, Florida, is estimated at 10 (TBR)
kWh/square meter-year

Irradiance from this FSEC plot shows the higher energy level available with a
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tilted collector. Note the ragged effects of clouds in the sun path
 Solar Energy:
Photovoltaic Sunlight to Electricity
World Price for Photovoltaic Modules
 Photovoltaic cells can extract 1973-98

about 15% of incoming solar 90.0

energy; theoretical is about 80.0

21%; $/W is the key 70.0

1997 Dollars Per Watt

60.0
 Low voltage direct current is 50.0
produced at about 0.55 volt 40.0
per cell; clusters are 30.0

connected for ~16 volts 20.0

10.0
output for charging a 12 volt 0.0
system 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

 Arrays of cells (modules) can Compiled by Worldwatch Institute

be fixed or can track the sun

for greater energy gain
PV prices are falling, though still
relatively expensive compared to wind
 Storage is required unless the
energy is inverted to 120 Vac
or fossil utility power
to synchronously drive the
utility grid
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 Roof-Top Solar Array
Computations

 Find the south-facing roof area; Siemens Solar SM110

say 20 ft * 40 ft = 800 ft2 Maximum power rating, 110 W

 Assume 120 Wp solar modules Minimum power rating, 100 W

are 26 inches by 52 inches; 9.4 Rated current. 6.3 A

ft2/120 watt; 12.78 W/ft2 Rated voltage, 17.9 V

 Assume 90% of area can be Short circuit current, 6.9 A

covered, 720 ft2, ~9202 W Open circuit voltage, 21.7 V

 and that there are 5.5 effective

hours of sun/day; 51 kWh/day
 The south-facing modules are
tilted south to the latitude angle
 76 modules would fit the area,
but 44 would provide an
average home with 30 kWh/day
and cost ~$17600 for modules
alone, ~one mile of powerline
 Wind Energy

 Wind energy results from uneven heating of the atmosphere

 Wind resources vary greatly worldwide, even within a few
miles
 Power is proportional to the wind speed cubed

Ref.: [Link]/pictures/general/ windfarm/[Link]?i=2

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 Wind Energy in Practice
 Early Twentieth Century saw
wind-driven water-pumps
commonly used in rural
America, but the spread of
electricity lines in 1930s
(REA) caused their decline
 Favorable California tax
incentives resulted in major
U.S. wind farms
 Altamonte Pass
 Tehachapi
 San Gorgonio Pass
 Other turbines are located in
Dakotas, Iowa, Texas, WA,
OR, KS, Minnesota,
Wyoming, Iowa, Vermont,
NY, VA, etc.

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[Link]/wind/[Link]
 Wind Energy Is Best Suited to
the Great Plains States

 Coastal Florida has Class 2 wind energy (160 to 240

W/m^2) per the PNNL Wind Energy Atlas ― sufficient to
investigate but marginal for major wind energy systems
 High average wind speeds in the Rocky Mountain
Region (300 to 1000 W/m^2) and the Great Plains
States (200 to 250 W/m^2)

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 Florida Has Marginal Wind
Energy

 Wind energy maps are

available for each state and
for the World
 Coastal Florida is Class 2 with
seabreeze and storm front
passages
 Summer ground heating
results in ~10 mph seabreezes
and storms
 Winter is calmer, with frontal
storm passages averaging
every four days
From the PNNL Wind Energy Atlas

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 A Sample Day’s Sea Breeze Wind Profile
From the FSEC MET System in Cocoa, FL

Effective wind
is from 9 a.m.
to ~5 p.m.

Ref.: FSEC

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 Predominant Wind Energy Direction
Determines the Site Selected

 The energy rose is the cube of N 0

the wind speed rose (flower- 338

20000
23 Available Relative Wind Energy

like) 315 15000 45

 In Palm Bay, Florida, this day’s

wind data sample shows the
10000

293 68

main wind direction at 150 5000

degrees azimuth 270 0 90

 Several years of data are

averaged to get a useful
sample; >5 years is desirable
248 113

 In obstructed areas, the site 225 135

selection is critical to obtain

the maximum wind energy
203 158

180

S
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 Energy Is Proportional to Wind
Speed Cubed

 Recall that the average wind power is based upon the

average of the speed cubed for each occurrence
 The wind energy varies from trivial to disastrous!
 Precautions are needed to protect the turbine

Turbines must be turned

automatically out of destructive winds
to protect them. Some turn sideways,
while others rotate vertically. Another
way is to drag flaps from the tip of the
blades. Most turbines reject power
when the wind speed exceeds 30
mph.
Ref.: Bergey
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 Bioenergy (From Biomass)
 Direct firing, cofiring, and gasification
are forms of biopower
 Ethanol can be made from grain or
soybeans, and methanol can be made
from cellulose
 Liquid fuels are essential for
transportation vehicles due to high
energy density
 May be intentionally grown (coppicing)
such as poplar trees or might use waste
byproducts
 Biomass satisfied 4% of energy
demand in 1990
 Biomass can serve as a bridge from
fossil fuels, although it is an inefficient
producer of energy

[Link]/.../ re_renew_maps_bio_poten.htm
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 Hydroelectric Energy (Dams)
 The solar distillation of ocean
and surface waters and
ground moisture produces
rain that stores potential
energy above sea level
 The impoundment of this
water energy has long been
used for generation of
electricity
 Hydro dams were
commonplace in the 1930’s,
but many have fallen into World's largest storage dam,
Uganda's Owen Falls Dam.
disuse and were removed The hydroelectric station at the
dam supplies most of
 Once installed, these the electricity requirements of
Uganda, and parts of Kenya.
systems produced low cost (Photo:Faculty of Engineering,
electricity Kasetsart University, Thailand)

Newhalem WA Gorge Plant;

photo: Leslie, 2002 Revised 021010
 Hydroelectric Energy (continued)

 Florida has only two small hydropower plants near

Georgia, while the Pacific Northwest relies heavily on
hydropower for cheap electricity
 Most useful sources have been exploited years ago
 Dams are under attack by environmentalists who want
water unhindered for fish passage, recreation, and for
endangered species
 Impounded waters reduce ocean rise

Revised 020923 [Link]/tlh/cpm/ [Link]

 Ocean Energy

 The tidal gravitational forces and thermal storage of the

ocean provide a major energy source
 Wave action adds to the extractable surface energy, but
is less than tidal energy
 Major ocean currents (like the Gulf Stream) may be
exploited to extract energy with underwater rotors
similar to wind turbines
 Offshore winds are unhindered and strong

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 Ocean Energy: Tidal Energy

 Tides are produced by gravitational forces of the moon

and sun and the Earth’s rotation (24 hour, 50 minute period)
 Existing and possible sites:
France: Rance River estuary 240 MW station
England: Severn River
Canada: Passamaquoddy in the Bay of Fundy (1935
attempt failed; not economically practical)
California: high potential along the northern coast
 Environmental, economic, and esthetic aspects have
delayed implementation

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 Ocean Energy: Wave Energy
 Salter “ducks” rock up and down as the wave passes
beneath it. This oscillating mechanical energy is
converted to electrical energy
 A Wavegen, wave-driven, air compressor or oscillating
water column (OWC) spins a Wells turbine to produce
electricity regardless of flow direction

Figures in kW/m
Source: Wave Energy paper. IMechE, 1991 and
Ref.: [Link]/archive-frr/ [Link]
©1996 Ramage
European Directory of Renewable Energy (Suppliers and Services) 1991
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 Ocean Energy: OTEC (Ocean
Thermal Electric Conversion)

 Hawaii has the research OTEC system

 OTEC requires some 40°F temperature difference
between the surface and deep waters to extract energy
 Open-cycle plants vaporize warm water and condense it
using the cold sea water, yielding potable water and
electricity from turbine-driven alternators
 Closed-cycle units evaporate ammonia at 78°F to drive a
turbine and an alternator

Ref.: [Link]/otec/[Link]
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 Geothermal Energy
 First electricity from geothermal
produced in Italy in 1903
 Active geysers supply steam or hot
water for heating in The Geysers,
California (824 MWe)
 “Hot, dry rock” (HDR) offers
potential for injecting water and
using the resultant steam to spin a
turbine
[Link]/geothermal/ [Link]
 At a lower thermal level, an air
conditioner can extract heat from
the ground for winter heating or
insert energy into the ground to
gain a more efficient cooling sink

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 Energy
Transmission

 Electricity and hydrogen are energy carriers, not natural

fuels
 Electric transmission lines lose energy in heat (~2 to 5%
as design parameter)
 Line energy flow directional analysis can show where
new energy plants are required
 Hydrogen is made by electrolysis of water, cracking of
natural gas, or from bacterial action (lab experiment
level)
 Pipelines can transport hydrogen without appreciable
energy loss

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 Energy Storage

 Renewable energy is often intermittent, and storage

allows alignment with time of use.
 Compressed air, flywheels, weight-shifting (pumped
water storage) are developing
 Batteries are traditional for small systems and electric
vehicles; grid storage alternative
 Energy may be stored financially as credits
in the electrical “grid”
 “Net metering” provides the same cost as
sale dollars to the supplier; 37 states’ law;
needed in Florida

Revised 020115 [Link]/systems/ details.solar_electric.html

 Energy in Transportation
 Air and ground transportation
require energy-dense fuels
(liquids) and fueling
infrastructure
 Fixed natural gas energy
plants compete with CNG for
cars and trucks
 Research is on-going with a
Lear jet fueled with hydrogen
from two large high-pressure
vessels running lengthwise
over the passenger Compressed natural gas car at FSEC
compartment ― a dubious (Florida Solar Energy Center, Cocoa, FL)

location

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 Distributed Generation (DG)

 Distributed generation occurs when power is generated

(converted) locally and might be shared with or sold to
neighbors through the electrical grid
 Distributed generation avoids the losses that occur in
transmission over long distances; energy used nearby
 Varying wind and sunshine averages across several
houses, blocks, cities, or states
 Supply is robust, but precautions are required to protect
electricity workers when main base-load power is out
and system may feed back into powerlines

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 Generic Trades in Energy
 Energy trade-offs are
required to make rational
decisions Ref.: [Link]/
pictures/general/
 PV is expensive ($5 per watt windfarm/[Link]?i=2

for hardware + $5 per watt

for shipping and installation
= $10 per watt) Ref.:
compared to wind energy [Link]/educati
on/story/story-
($1.5 per watt for images/[Link]

hardware + $5 per watt

for installation = $6 per
watt total)
 Are Compact Fluorescent Photo of FPL’s Cape
Canaveral Plant
Lamps (CFLs) better to use? by F. Leslie, 2001

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 Legal Aspects and Other
Complications
 PURPA: Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act of 1978. Utility purchase
from and sale of power to qualified facilities; avoided costs
 Power Plant Siting Act provides regulation by FERC
 Energy Policy Act of 1992 leads to deregulation
 Investment taxes favor conventional power
 High initial cost dissuades potential renewable energy users
 Lack of state-level net metering hinders offsetting costs
 Renewable energy credits needed to offset unlikely carbon tax on
fossil fuels and “externalities” (pollution, health, etc.)
 “NIMBYs” rally to insist “Not In My Backyard”!
 Need to consider beyond the first action; the results, and then
what?

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 Conclusion

 Renewable energy offers a

long-term approach to the
World’s energy needs
 Economics drives the selection
process and short-term (first
cost) thinking leads to
disregard of long-term, overall
cost
 Increasing oil, gas, and coal
prices will ensure that the
transition to renewable energy
will occur ― How will we
choose to do it?
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 References: Books
 Brower, Michael. Cool Energy. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992. 0-262-02349-0,
TJ807.9.U6B76, 333.79’4’0973.
 Duffie, John and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. NY:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 920 pp., 1991
 Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy for Home & Business. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea
Green Pub. Co., 1993. 0-930031-64-4, TJ820.G57, 621.4’5
 Patel, Mukund R. Wind and Solar Power Systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1999, 351
pp. ISBN 0-8493-1605-7, TK1541.P38 1999, 621.31’2136
 Sørensen, Bent. Renewable Energy, Second Edition. San Diego: Academic Press,
2000, 911 pp. ISBN 0-12-656152-4.

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 References: Websites, etc.

awea-windnet@[Link]. Wind Energy elist

awea-wind-home@[Link]. Wind energy home powersite elist
[Link]/ on geothermal energy
[Link]
[Link]/wind/pubs/atlas/maps/chap2/[Link] PNNL wind energy map of CONUS windenergyexperimenter@[Link].
Elist for wind energy experimenters
[Link]. Site devoted to the decline of energy and effects upon population
[Link]/ Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
[Link]/dbedt/ert/otec_hi.html#anchor349152 on OTEC systems
[Link]/wind/[Link]
[Link]/search?q=%22renewable+energy+course%22
[Link]/
[Link]/html/powerplant_selection.html

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