Department of

Electronics & Communication Engineering

Satish Kanapala, Assistant Professor 1

Outline
Basics of
• FDMA
• TDMA
• CDMA

Spread Spectrum Modulation

• Use of Spread Spectrum
• FHSS
• DSSS
• Ranging using DSSS
• PN - sequences: Generation and Characteristics
• Synchronization in Spread Spectrum Systems
Need for Multiple Access:
What is Frequency Spectrum?
Frequency spectrum of a time-domain signal is the
representation of that signal in the frequency domain.

Can we provide Spectrum for every one?

No

What is the solution?

Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users
to share simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum,
without severe degradation in the performance of the system
Multiple Access:

•Used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a

finite amount of radio spectrum.

•Provide for the sharing of channel capacity between a number

of transmitters at different locations.

•Aim to share a channel between two or more signals in such

way that each signal can be received without interference from
another.
Introduction
Introduction
In conventional telephone systems, it is possible to talk and listen
simultaneously, called duplexing.

Duplexing: Allow the possibility of talking and listening

simultaneously.

•Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user

•Time Division Duplex (TDD)

Multiple users share a signal channel by taking turns in time
domain.
Each duplexing channel has both a forward time slot and a
reverse time slot to facilitate bidirectional communication.
Introduction
FDD provides two simplex channels at the same time

TDD provides two simplex time slots on the same frequency

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

8
Introduction

• FDMA is one of the most common analog multiple access

methods.

• The frequency band is divided into multiple channels/carriers.

Each carrier is allocated to different users.

• All users are able to transmit simultaneously.

• In FDMA, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal

spectra to minimize crosstalk between the channels.
Features of FDMA
• If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and can’t be
used by other users. It is essentially a wasted resource

• After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and

the mobile transmit simultaneously and continuously

• FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

• The symbol time of narrow band signal is large as compared to

the average delay spread.

This implies that the amount of inter-symbol interference is low

and, thus, little or no equalization is required in FDMA
narrowband systems
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

• In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at

the base station.

• The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at

or near saturation for maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear.

• The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the frequency

domain and generate inter-modulation (IM) frequencies and this
causes adjacent-channel interference

Intermodulation is the generation of undesired harmonics.

Advantages of FDMA

• It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference

• Equalization is not necessary.
• Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are
required for synchronization and framing.

Disadvantages of FDMA
• Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
• Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in
VLSI and therefore increases the cost.
FDMA Channels:
The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a
FDMA system is given by

Where Bt - the total spectrum allocation

Bguard - the guard band allocated at the edge of the allocated spectrum
Bc - the channel bandwidth

Example:
If a US AMPS cellular operator is allocated 12.5MHz for each simplex band, and
if Bt is 12.5 MHz, Bguard is 10kHz and Bc is 30kHz, find the [Link] channels
available in an FDMA system
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Introduction
• TDMA is a digital cellular telephone communication technology.
• It divide a signal into different timeslots. Each user is allowed to
transmit only within specified time slots. Different users transmit in
different time slots.
• When users transmit, they occupy the whole frequency bandwidth.
• Only one user is allowed to transmit at a time.
• Permits flexible rates . i. e. several slots can be assigned to a user.
• Can withstand variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to
a user can be changed frame by frame
• No guard band required for the wideband system.
• Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption
and complex signal processing is required to synchronize within
short slots.
Features of TDMA
• TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots and
only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive.

• Share a single carrier frequency with several users, where each

user makes use of non-overlapping time slots.

• Transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method, thus the transmission

for any user is not continuous. This results in low battery
consumption, since the subscriber Txer can be turned off when
not in use.

• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception,

thus duplexers are not required.

• In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized.

 TDMA Frame Structure

• Preamble  Address and synchronization information for base station

and subscriber identification
• Guard times  Synchronization of receivers between different slots
and frames
[Link] Channels in TDMA System:

The number of TDMA channel slots that can be provided in a TDMA

system is found by multiplying the number of TDMA slots per
channel by the number of channels available and is given by

Where m – maximum [Link] TDMA users supported on each radio

channel.
Example:1

Consider GSM, which is a TDMA/FDD system that uses 25 MHz

for the forward link, which is broken into radio channels of 200
kHz. If 8 speech channels are supported on a single radio channel,
and if no guard band is assumed, find the [Link] simultaneous
users that can be accommodated in GSM
Example:2
If GSM uses a frame structure where each frame consists of 8 time slots, and
each time slot contains 156.25 bits, and data is transmitted at 270.833 kbps in
the channel.
Find,
a)The time duration of a bit
b)The time duration of a slot
c)The time duration of a frame
d) how long must a user occupying a single time slot wait between two
successive transmissions
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

21
 Introduction
• In CDMA, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire duration.
• The basic principle is that, in CDMA each user is assigned a unique code
sequence(spreading code), which it uses to encode its data signal.

• Each user has its own pseudo random codeword, which is approximately
orthogonal to all other code words.

• Using different orthogonal codes, interference between the signals is minimal.

• The receiver, knowing the code sequence of the user, decodes the received
signal and recovers the original data.

• The bandwidth of the coded data signal is chosen to be much larger than the
bandwidth of the original data signal, that is, the encoding process spreads the
spectrum of the data signal.

• CDMA is also called DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum).

Example:
Low-Bandwidth Signal

High-Bandwidth Spreading Code

… Repeated repeated

simply multiply

…and transmit…
Cont…
To Decode / Receive, take the signal:

Multiply with the same Spreading Code

… we get …

Which you should recognize as …

24
 When we use the wrong code:
Take the same signal:

Multiply by the wrong Spreading Code (for example, let's just shift the same code left a
bit)

… you get ...

which clearly hasn't recovered the original signal.

Using wrong code is like being off-frequency.
 Features of CDMA
• Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.
• Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems. The greater the number of
codes, the more the number of users.
• Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals
from the two base stations.

• Transmission Burst − reduces interference.

• The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay
or may cause interference.

• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spread over a
large spectrum.

• If the power of each user within the cell is not controlled such that they do not
appear equal at the base station receiver, then the near-far problem occurs
Advantages of CDMA
1. Low power spectral density.
– Signal is spread over a larger frequency band
– Other systems suffer less from the transmitter
2. Interference limited operation
– All frequency spectrum is used
3. Privacy – The codeword is known only between the sender and receiver.
Hence other users can not decode the messages that are in transit.
4. Reduction of multipath affects by using a larger Spectrum
5. Random access possible
-- users can start their transmission at any time
6. Higher capacity than TDMA and FDMA
7. No frequency management
8. No equalizers needed
9. No guard time needed
27
Spread Spectrum Modulation

28
 Introduction
• Signal transmitted over a narrow band digital communication system is more
susceptible to jamming
– It is easy to detect the transmitted signal with unauthorized people

• To protect the data’s from unauthorized persons

– we uses a special technique called spreading the signal over the large
bandwidth

• Transmitted signal occupies excess bandwidth than the required bandwidth

• Spreading of the transmitted signal is obtained before transmission through
spreading code
• It is independent of data sequence
• PN code is used
• Same PN code must be used at the receiver to de-spread the original data
• The PN code used at transmitter & receiver must be in proper synchronizations
 Cont…
• A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is spread out to occupy a
bandwidth of Bss

• All signals are spread to occupy the same bandwidth Bss

• Signals are spread with different codes so that they can be

separated at the receivers.

30
 Uses of Spread Spectrum
1. Suppresses the effect of interference
Due to jamming, interference from multi used as well as from
self interference
2. Hiding a signal from unauthorized persons with low transmitted
power with the background noise
3. Message privacy
4. Military applications
– Radar & navigation – finding accurate ranging (time delay) & velocity
5. Civilian applications
– Used to provide multipath rejection in a ground based mobile radio
environment
6. Multiple access communication
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
•Cross-talk elimination
•Better output with data integrity
•Reduced effect of multipath fading
•Better security
•Reduction in noise
•Co-existence with other systems
•Longer operative distances
•Hard to detect
•Not easy to demodulate/decode
•Difficult to jam the signals
32
Spread Spectrum Modulation

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Cont…
Cont…
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• It divides available bandwidth into M channels and hops

between these channels according to the PN sequence.

•Uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the

source signal

•At one movement, the signal modulates one carrier freq, at the
next moment the signal modulates another carrier freq.

i.e The modulation is done using one carrier [Link] a time,

M frequencies are used in long run.

36
General Layout for FHSS
Cont…

• A pseudorandom code generator(called PN sequence) creates a

k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th

• The freq. table uses the pattern to find the [Link] be used for this
hopping period and passes it to the frequency synthesizer.

• frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that freq. and the

source signal modulates the carrier.
Example:
Suppose we have 8 hopping frequencies
Here M=8 and k=3
The pseudorandom code generator will create 8 different 3-bit
pattern.

These are mapped to 8 different frequencies in the [Link].

FHSS Cycles:
 FHSS

• If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a
sender and receiver can have privacy.

• If the intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, he can only

access a small piece of data because he does not know the
speading sequence.

• This scheme has an anti-jamming effect

FDMA Vs FHSS

42
 Comparison of FHSS and DSSS/CDMA
FHSS DSSS / CDMA
Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at User frequency, once allotted is always the
any instant of time same
Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender need not wait Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the

It is weaker compared to FHSS
obstacles
It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive
This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used