Mistakes and Errors
SOURCES OF ERRORS
INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
Due to the imperfection of the instruments.
Incorrect tape length,
leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced,
line of sight not in adjustments,
sighting on rod is warped,
improper adjustment of plate bubbles
NATURAL ERRORS
Due to Variations of the Phenomena of Nature
Magnetic Declination,
Temperature,
Humidity, Wind,
Refraction, Gravity and
Curvature of the Earth.
PERSONAL ERRORS
Due to limitation of Senses
“constant, compensating, erratic.
eliminated by re-checking the procedures
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
• Small errors occur more often and are more probable
• Large errors occur infrequently, usually mistakes
rather than accidental.
• Positive and Negative Errors of the same size happen
with equal frequency
• Mean of an Infinite Number of Observations is the
Most Probable Value
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
(x1 + x2 + x3 + ……..+ xn)
mpv= X = x =
n n
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance bet.
two points marked on the ground. The students came up with 6 different values.
250.25 250.15 249.90 251.04 250.50 251.22m.
Determine the most probable value of the distance measured.
Solution.
n = 6 no. of repetitions/observations
x = (250.2 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22)
n 6
x = 250.51m
n Note:
Like the Average of Grades
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
Angles about at point Q have the following observed values:
130º 15’ 20” 142º 37’ 30” and 87º 07’ 40”
Determine the most probable value of each angle.
3 1
Q
1 130º 15’ 20” n=3 no. of repetitions/observations
2 142º 37’ 30”
3 87º 07’ 40”
2
Solution.
determining the correction to be applied (discrepancy)
Sum = (130º 15’ 20”) + (142º 37’ 30”) + (87º 07’ 40”)
= 360º 00’ 30”
Discrepancy = 360º - 360º 00’ 30”
Discrepancy = -30”
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
Correction = Discrepancy / n
= -30”/3
Correction = -10”
Correction is to be subtracted from each observed angle
1 130º 15’ 20” – 10” = 130º 15’ 10”
2 142º 37’ 30” – 10” = 142º 37’ 20”
3 87º 07’ 40” – 10” = 87º 07’ 30”
360º 00’ 00”
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
The observed interior angles of a triangle are
B
A = 35º 14’ 37” B = 96º 30’ 09” C = 48º 15’ 05”
Determine the Most Probable Value of each angle.
96º 30’ 09”
35º 14’ 37” 48º 15’ 05”
NOTE: 3 SIDES OF A TRIANGLE = 180
Given: C
A
n=3
Solution:
A + B + C = (35º 14’ 37”) + (96º 30’ 09”) + (48º 15’ 05”)
= 179º 59’ 51”
Discrepancy = 180º - 179º 59’ 51”
= + 9”
Correction = Discrepancy / n
= 9”/ 3
= +3”
Determining the Most Probable Values
A’ = 35º 14’ 37” + 3”
= 35º 14’ 40”
B’ = 96º 30’ 09” + 3”
= 96º 30’ 12”
C’ = 48º 15’ 05” + 3”
= 48º 15’ 08”
A’ + B’ + C’ = 180º
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
number of steps or paces in a required distance.
heel to heel or toe to toe
Distance by Taping
most common method of measuring horizontal distance.
aka “chaining”
Distance by Tachymetry
with the use of instruments for measuring distances.
*STADIA METHOD_ rapid means of measuring distances.
*SUBTENSE BAR METHOD_ convenient and practical
for quick and accurate measurement of distances.
Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Method
determines unknown distances thru relationships.
Distance by Mechanical Devices
for low precision surveys
Distance by Photogrammetry
Images on a photograph
Note: 1 stride = 2 paces
Distance by Pacing
In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level ground, a pacer for a survey
party counted 51 52.5 51.5 52.5 51.5 strides respectively. Then he started
walking on unknown distances X-Y in four trials which were recorded as follows
88.5 89 88 87 strides.
Determine the following:
_Pace factor of the pacer
_Length of line XY
_Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY is 150.5m.
Solution. PF = PACED FACTOR
determining the pace factor PF = length / mean1
L = 90.0m length of course = 90 m / 103.6 paces
n1 = 5 no. of trials = 0.869 m/pace
Sum1 = 51 + 52.5 + 51.5 + 52.5 + 51.5
= 259 strides or 518 paces
Mean1 = sum1 / n1
= 518 / 5
Determining the unknown distance
n2 = 4 no. of trials taken on XY
Sum2 = (88.5 + 89 + 88 + 87)
= 352.5 strides or 705 paces
Mean2 = sum2 / n2
= 705 / 4
= 176.25 paces mean number of paces to walk line XY
PD X Y = Paced Distance of XY
PD X Y = M2 (PF)
= 176.25 paces ( 0.869 ) m/pace
= 153.2m
Determine the Percentage of Error
TD = 150.5m TAPED DISTANCE
PD = 153.2m PACED DISTANCE 150.5 – 153.2
TD - PD (100) = (100) = 1.79%
%ERROR = TD 150.5
TAPE CORRECTIONS
DUE TO TEMPERATURE
Ct = K ( T2 - T1 ) L
K = coefficient of thermal expansion
Ex. Steel = 0.0000116 / ºC
T1 = standard / initial Temperature
T2 = actual site / final Temperature
L = Length of Tape
TAPE CORRECTIONS
DUE TO PULL
PL (P2 – P1) Lml
CP = ΔL = =
AE AE
P1 = Standard / Initial Pull
P2 = actual / Final Pull
E = elasticity of the Steel
= 200 GPa
A = cross-sectional area of the tape
Lml = measured length
TAPE CORRECTIONS
DUE TO SAG
( ωL )² L³
CS = M – T =
24 ( P2 )
ωL = linear unit wt.
Ex. kg/m N/m
L ≈ M approximately
A line was determined to be 2395.25m
when measured with 30m steel tape
supported throughout its length under
a pull of 4kg at a mean temperature of
35°C. Tape used is of standard length at
20°C under a pull of 5kg.
Cross-sectional Area of tape is 0.03 sq. m
Coefficient of thermal expansion is
0.0000116/°C, Modulus of elasticity of
tape is 2 x 10 6 kg/cm².
Determine the error of the tape due to change in temperature
Determine the error due to tension
Determine the corrected length of the line
Given:
LML = 2395.25m measured length
Lsteel tape = 30m length of steel tape
A = 0.03 sq.m. Cross-sectional area of tape
K = 0.0000116/°C coefficient of thermal expansion
6
E = 2 x 10 kg/cm² modulus of elasticity
Solution:
Determine the error of the tape due to change in temperature
Ct = K ( T2 - T1 ) Lsteel tape Total Ct =( LML / Lsteel tape ) x Ctsteel tape
Total Ct =
Ct = 0.000116 (35 - 20)°C (30m)
°C
2395.25 m
x 0.00522 m. = 0.4168 m.
Ct = 0.00522 m. correction per tape length 30 m
Determine the error due to tension
Sq.m. = cm²
P Lml (P2 – P1) Lml
CP = ΔL = =
AE AE
CP = 5 kg – 4 kg 2395.25 m
0.03 cm² 2E6 kg/cm²
Total CP = - 0.0399 m.
Determine the corrected length of the line
Lcorrected length = Lml ± total Ct ± total Cp
= 2395.25 + 0.4168 – 0.0399
= 2395.6269 m.
CUMULATIVE
Constant or Systematic Errors
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
Distance between 2 points in surveying
GUNTER OR SURVEYOR’S CHAIN
Unit of measure of Surveys of Public Lands
PROBABLE ERROR
Limits between which the True Error has a 50-50
chances of falling
PERSONAL ERROR
If the Bubble of an Engineer’s Level is not exactly
centered at the instant of sighting