CHAPTER 2 :

LOCOMOTION AND SUPPORT

2.1 :Support And Locomotion In Human And
Animals

 Locomotion is the ability of an organisms to

move from one place to another.
 Human and animals need to move to find
food, mate, shelter or to escape from
predators.
 The bodies of multicellular animals need to
be supported by a frameworks called skeleton.
 The function of a skeleton are :
- provides shape and support for the body
- allows movement by providing a surface
for attachment of muscle
- protects the internal organ such as the
brain, hearth and lungs
- stores mineral such as calcium and
phosphorus
- produce blood cell in the bond marrow
EXAMPLE OF SKELETON
 there are three type of skeletons :
- Found in soft-bodies invertebrates.
- The support is derived from body fluid
contained within the body cavity.
- It maintaining the body shape and
Hydrostatic providing support for internal organs.
skeleton
- Found in the bodies of crustaceans and
arthropods.
- In insects, the exoskeleton is made up
of chitin whereas in crabs, it contain
lime.
Exoskeleton - Ecdysis, a process growth of insects
that can occur by the shedding of the
old exoskeleton.

-Found in the bodies of all vertebrates.

-Consists of soft cartilage and hard
skeleton of bones.
Endoskeleton
-It protects the internal organs and
maintain body shape.
- Forms a framework for the attachment
of muscles.
Structure of the Human Skeleton:
 The human skeleton can be divided into two
main parts:
-the axial skeleton.
-the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton consists of those
components:
-skull.
-vertebral column (spine).
-ribcage.
 The appendicular skeleton are components of
the skeleton
 The Axial Skeleton
 Skull
- the skull is made up of flat bones joined
together by sutures which are immovable joints.
- It consists of cranial bones and facial bones.
- The facial bones consist of sockets for the eyes,
nose, and ears. They provide the basic shape or
framework of the face and also support for the
teeth.
- The lower jaw is movable and allows the
opening and closing of the mouth.
 Ribs And Sternum (rib cage)
- There are 12 pairs of ribs which articulate
with the sternum and the thoracic
vertebrae of the vertebral column.
- The ribs are flattened, curved bones.
- The sternum is a flattened, narrow bone.
- The ribs and sternum form a cage plays on
important role in respiration.
 Vertebral Column
- Consists of 33 vertebrae attached together
to form a strong and flexible column
- Intervertebral discs made of cartilage are
found in between vertebrae. The discs
absorb shock and allows limited movement
of the vertebral column.
- The vertebral column encloses and protects
the spinal cord, supports the head, provides
a base for the attachment of the muscles of
the back and provides articulating surfaces
for the ribs and pelvic girdle
The roles of muscles, ligaments, tendons and joints
in movement
– Movements is brought about the contraction and relaxation of
skeleton muscles.
– Skeletal muscles exist in pairs and the action of one member of
pair opposes the other member.
– Each pair of muscles working in opposition is called antagonistic
muscles.
– The biceps and triceps of the arm is an example antagonistic pair
of muscle. When the biceps contracts, the triceps relaxes and
vice versa.
– Skeleton muscles are involved in voluntary actions. They
contract upon receiving impulses from the central nervous
system. Therefore, they are also known as voluntary muscles.
– Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
– A tendon is a chord of dense connective tissues forming strong
and inelastic fibers .
– The force exerted by the muscles on the tendon moves the bones.
– At the joint, the bones are held together by ligaments.
– Ligaments are strong, flexible, and elastic connective tissues.
– Ligaments allow movement of bones at joint and ensure no
dislocation of bones during movement.
– A joint is a place where two or more bones meet.
– Different kinds of joints permit movements in different planes.
Some joints do not allow movement such as the immovable
sutures of the skull.
– Example of movable joints are hinge joint at the elbow and ball-
and-socket joint at the shoulder.
– Movement of the body are brought about by the action of
antagonistic muscles.
– Figure 2.13(a) and figure 2.13(b) summarise the
actions of muscles in bringing about the movement of
the upper limb.
– Muscles which straighten the limbs are called
extensors.
– Muscles which bend the limbs are called flexors.
– Muscles pull when they contract. They cannot push.
– The source of energy for the contraction of muscles is
ATP which is produced in the mitochondria.
– Skeletal muscles consist of bundles of muscles fibres.
– Each muscles fiber is made up of many myofibrils.
– Each myofibril has section of sarcomeres.
– A sarcomeres consist of thick protein filaments
called myosin and thin protein filaments called
actin which interact to bring about muscle
contraction.
 The mechanism of locomotion in animals
 Locomotion in an earthworm
– The earthworm has a hydrostatic skeleton the body cavity is filled
with fluid.
– The fluid filled cavity which is called the coelom helps the
earthworm to move .
– circular and longitudinal muscles are found on the body wall of an
earthworm.
– Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the circular and longitudinal
muscles from the anterior to the posterior end moves the
earthworms.
– Locomotion in an earthworms is aided by bristle like chaetae which
are found on the sides of each segments. The chaetae anchor the
shortened segments of the body to the ground to enable other
segments of the body to be pulled forward.
locomotion in a grasshopper
- A grasshopper has an exoskeleton.
- A grasshopper has three pairs of legs. Its hind legs are big, long and
strong which are adapted for jumping.
- Antagonistic muscles known as flexor and extensor muscles are
attached to the inside of the exoskeleton by tendons.
- The grasshopper moves by jumping ,walking or flying.
- When grasshopper walks, its body is supported by three legs which
form a tripod while the other three legs move together to move the
grasshopper forward.
- The grasshopper has claws and glandular pads at the end of each leg
to enable it to climb smooth vertical surfaces.
- The grasshopper also has wings on its thorax to enable it to fly.
- Contraction of the flight muscles move the wing to drive the air
downward ,resulting in a lift force to lift the grasshopper and allow it
to fly.
 Locomotion in fish
—A fish has an endoskeleton. It swims in water.
—Water is more viscous and has a higher density than air thus
providing resistance to the fish’s movement
– To overcome water resistances:
a) Fish has a streamlined shape in which the head is smooth
and round while the body is long and tapers to the end.
b) Slimy coating on a fish’s body to allow water to flow
smoothly over the body.
c) Scales which face towards the tail to reduce water
resistances and friction.
– Antagonistic muscles in the fish consist of blocks of muscles called
myotomes . They are arranged on both sides of the body around the
vertebral column.
– When the myotomes on the right side of the body contract, the
myotomes on the left sides of the body relax. This causes the body to
bend towards the right.
– Alternate contractions of the myotomes on the left and right side of
the body causes the body and the tail to lash from the side to side
producing a forward thrust which propels the fish forward.
– During swimming, the fish may become unstable leading to yawing,
rolling and pitching movements.
– Many bony fishes has swim bladders beneath the vertebral column.
The pressure in the swim bladder can be increased or decreased by
gulping or releasing air through the mouth. This keeps the fish
buoyant when it stop swimming.
– The fish has fins to overcome this instability.
 Pectoral fins Dorsal fin
Controlling pitching of the fish, • Controls rolling and
causing it to swim upwards or yawing of fish
downwards.
Help in slowing down or stopping

Pelvic fins
Ventral fin
• Control pitching
• Controls rolling
of the fish
and yawing of
fish
 Locomotion in frog
—A frog moves by jumping and crawling when on
land and swimming in the water.
—It has long, strong and muscular hind legs which
are adapted for jumping.
 Locomotion in a birds
— Birds have many special modification which are adapted
for efficient flight.
—Most of the adaptations are to reduce the bird’s weight.
They include
a) hollow bones
b) some paired organ, such as kidney and testis, occurring
as a single organ.
c) Small brain
d) Absence of teeth
e) Small head
f) Absence of sweat glands
g) No storing of fat
— The air is a medium which does not provide much support for
flying. Therefore, the bird overcomes this problems by having
wings witch act as aerofoils. The wings are attached to the
sternum by large, powerful muscles known as pectoralis
major and smaller muscles known as pectoralis minor.
— The pectoralis muscles are antagonistic muscles. When the
pectoralis major muscles contract, the wing is moved
backwards and downwards. When the pectoralis minor
muscles contract, the wing is moved forwards und upwards.
— The contraction and relaxation of the muscles give the
flapping movements of the wings.
— The movement of the wings creates a flow of air over the
wings, with the speed of the air faster on top of the wings.
This is due to the airfoil shape of the wings. This cause a
higher pressure under the wing according to Bernoulli’s
principle. A lifting force is then produce to enable the bird to
fly.
— The shape of the birds and the layer of waterproof feathers
give the bird a streamlined body to overcome air resistance
during flight.
 Consequences of impaired musculoskeleton
system on support and locomotion
1. An impaired musculoskeletal system may be
due to
—Unbalance diet
—Aging
—Unhealthy living
—Diseases
—Heredatery
2. The consequences of and impaired
musculoskeletal system are
—Muscles cramp
—Osteoporosis
—Arthritis
—Muscular dystrophy
 Muscle cramp
—Muscle cramps are large, involuntary and painful contractions
which develop when there is a lack of stretching during an
exercise. A depletion of glycogen as well the decline in the
muscle’s ability to generate a force contribute to muscles cramp
—Muscles cramp can last for fifteen minutes or more depending
on extent of the cramp.
—Hamstring muscles at the back of thigh and calf are usually
affected .
—Heat, massage, rubbing and rest can reduce cramps.
 Osteoporosis
—Osteoporosis sets in as a person ages, especially in
menopausal woman. The bones decrease in mass,
become porous and brittle.
—Osteoporosis occurs when the reabsorption of calcium
and phosphates into the bloodstream is more than the
withdrawing of calcium during the formation of bones.
—Physical of inactivity, calcium deficiency, insufficient
vitamin D, declining activities of bones, cells and
insufficient sex hormones can contribute to osteoporosis.
—This disorder usually affects the spongy bones, including
the vertebral column and long bones such as the
humerus and femur.
– Osteoporosis can be prevented or minimised
through the following methods.
a) Prevention beginning from childhood, with good nutrition
and exercise.
b) A balanced diet including adequate calcium intake
c) Fall prevention in elderly people.
 Arthritis
—Arthritis is inflammation of the joints. It can cause
pain and swelling in the joints.
—This disorder is due to the exhaustion of cartilage,
depletion of synovial fluid and degeneration of
synovial membrane at the synovial joints.
—There are over 100 type of arthritis. The common
ones are rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and
gout.
—Rheumatoid arthritis.
—Rheumatoid arthritis.
i. Rheumatoid arthritis can occur at any age. It usually affect
women.
ii. It is an autoimmune disease that cause chronic inflammation of
the joints and surrounding tissues. The body’s immune system
mistakenly attacks the joints, leading to joints inflammation.
iii. In some patients with rheumatoid arthritis, the cartilage
degenerates and the synovial membranes inflamed, causing the
accumulation of synovial fluid at the joint. The joints become
swollen.
iv. The cause of this disorder is unknown. However, some scientists
believe that it may be genetically inherited. Bacteria and viral
infection may also be the triggers.
– Osteoarthritis
i. It is a chronic disease which causes the cartilage at the
joints to wear away.
ii. It usually affects the knees, hips, and vertebral column.
iii. The cause of osteoarthritis is unknown. It may be related
to ages and genetics.
― Gout arthritis
i. It is a metabolic disease caused by the deposition of uric acid in the
joints.
ii. This disorder can be inherited.
iii. Certain drugs such as colchicine and non-steroidal anti- inflammatory
drugs are used to reduce the pain, swelling and inflammation of an
acute gout attack.
 Muscular dystrophy
―Muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic disorder characterised by
progressive weakening and degeneration of muscle.
―Muscular dystrophy is caused by mutation in a gene on the X
chromosomes, a sex chromosomes. The mutate gene makes the body
unable to produce the proteins needed to build and maintain healthy
muscles.
―This condition usually affects children.
―A child who is diagnosed with muscular dystrophy gradually loses the
ability to carry out daily activities. The muscles fibres weaken and the
child tends to fall. The patient usually does not live long due to an
inability to breathe.
―The
― The muscles swell s a result of a accumulation of fat and
connective tissues. This swelling starts from the body and
spreads to the chest and head.
― Being sex-linked, as it is present in the X chromosome, this
disorder affects more males and females.
― There is no cure for this disease, though medication and therapy
are provided to slow the course of the disease.
2.2 : Appreciating a Healthy Musculoskeletal
System
 Ways to care for the musculoskeletal system
―The musculoskeletal system is important to us as
gives us support and movement. We need it to
move around to perform
ThAnK You