Fundamentals of cutting
Chapter-20
TOPICS
Introduction
Mechanics of chip formation
Types of chips produced in meta cutting
Mechanics of oblique cutting
Cutting forces and power
Temperature in cutting
Tool life : Wear and failure
Surface finish and integrity
Machinability
Fundamentals of cutting
Fig 20.1 Examples of cutting process Fig 20.3 Schematic illustration of a two-
dimensional cutting process,also called
orthogonal [Link] that the tool
shape and its angles,depth of cut,to,and the
cutting speed are all independent variables.
Fig 20.2 Basic principle of turning operation
Introduction :
Cutting process : Remove material from the
surface of the work piece by producing chips
Turning operation : the work piece is rotated an a
cutting tool removes a layer of material as it moves
to the left
Cutting off: Cutting tool moves radially inwards
and separated the right piece from the back of the
blank.
Slab-milling rotating cutting tool removes a layer
of material from the surface of the work piece
End-milling rotating cutter travels along a certain
depth in the work piece and produces a cavity
Factors influencing cutting process
Parameter Influence and interrelationship
Cutting speed depth of Forces power,temperature rise,tool life,type of chips,surface
cut,feed,cutting fluids. finish.
Tool angles As above;influence on chip flow direction;resistance to tool
chipping.
Continuous chip Good surface finish;steady cutting forces;undesirable in
automated machinery.
Poor surface finish,thin stable edge can product tool surface.
Built-up-edge chip
Discontinuous chip Desirable for ease of chip disposal;fluctuating cutting
forces;can affect surface finish and cause vibration and
chatters.
Temperature rise. Influences surface finish,dimensional accuracy,temperature
rise,forces and power.
Tool wear Influences surface finish,dimensional accuracy,temperature
rise,forces and power.
Machinability Related to tool life,surface finish,forces and power
Mechanics of chip formation :
Orthogonal cutting
Rake angle – Alpha
Relief angle ( clearance angle)
Shear angle ( Pi)
Thickness of a chip – Tc
Depth of cut- T0
Cutting ratio r = To / Tc
= Sin Pi / Cos ( pi- Alpha )
Mechanism of chip formation
Fig 20.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in metal
cutting. (b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.
Mechanism of chip formation
Chip compression ratio = 1 / r
Always > unity
On the basis of fig 20.4-a
Shear strain gama
Gama = AB/OC = AO/OC + OB/OC
Gama = Cot Pi + tan ( Pi – Alpha )
Note : for actual cutting operation shear strain > 5
Mechanism of chip formation
Shear angle adjusts itself to minimize cutting force
Shear plane is the plane of maximum shear stress
Pi = 45 + Alpha / 2 – Beta / 2
Beta : Friction angle
Mu – coefficient of friction
Mu = tan beta
Mechanism of chip formation
Mass continuity has to be maintained
So , we have
V To = Vc Tc
Vc = Vr
Vc = V Sin pi / Cos ( pi – Alpha )
Vc : Velocity of a chip
V : Cutting Speed
Vs : Velocity of shearing
From trigonometric relation
V / cos ( pi – Alpha ) = Vs / Cos ( Alpha ) = Vc /
Sin ( pi )
Types of chips
Continuous
Built up edge
Serrated or segmented
Discontinuous
Fig20.5 Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs produced in metal cutting (a)
continuous ship with a narrow,straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the
chip tool interface;(c) continuous chip with large primary shear zone; (d) continuous chip
with built-up-edge;(e) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip and (f) discontinuous chips
Continuous chips
(b) Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a
built-up edge
Fig :20.6 (a) Hardness distribution in the
cutting zone for 3115 [Link] that some
regions in the built-up edge are as mach as
three times harder than the bulk metal
(c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling
Continuous chips
Continuous chips are usually formed at high rake
angles and/or high cutting speeds.
A good surface finish is generally produced.
continuous chips are not always desirable,
particularly in automated machine tools,
tend to get tangled around the tool
operation has to be stopped to clear away the
chips.
Built-up edges chips
BUE consists of layers of material from the
workpiece that are gradually deposited on the
tool.
BUE then becomes unstable and eventually
breaks up
BUE material is carried away on the tool side of
the chip
the rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece
surface.
BUE results in poor surface finish
reduced by increasing the rake angle and
therefore decreasing the depth of cut.
Discontinuous chips
Discontinuous chips consist of segments that
may be firmly or loosely attached to each other
These chips occur when machining hard brittle
materials such as cast iron.
Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane
before any tangible plastic flow occurs
Discontinuous chips will form in brittle materials
at low rake angles (large depths of cut).
Serrated chips
Figure :20.5e
Segmented chips or non-
homogeneous chips
Semi continuous chips with zones
low and high shear strain
Low thermal conductivity and
Fig 20.5 (e)segmented or
strength metals exhibit this nonhomogeneous chip and
behavior
Chip Breakers
Long continuous chip
are undesirable
Chip breaker is a piece of
metal clamped to the
rake surface of the tool
which bends the chip
and breaks it
Chips can also be broken
by changing the tool
geometry,thereby
controlling the chip flow Fig 20.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action
of a chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker clamped
on the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in
cutting tools acting as chip breakers
Chip Breakers
Fig:Various chips produced in turning: a)tightly curled chip b)chip hits workpiece
and breaks c)continuous chip moving away from workpiece;and d)chip hits tool
shank and breaks off
Chip Formation in Nonmetallic Materials
Fig: a) cutting with an oblique tool b) Top view showing the inclination angle, i.
c) Types of chips produced with different inclination
Mechanism of Oblique Cutting
The cutting edge is at an angle i, called inclination angle.
The chip movement is in lateral direction
Fig: a)right hand cutting [Link] these tools have traditionally been produced
from solids tool-steel bars,they have been largely replaced by carbide or other
inserts of various shapes and sizes,as shownin b).The vcarious angles on these tools
and their effects on machining are described
Temperature In Cutting
Fig:Percentage of the heat generated in
Fig:Typical temperature distribution cutting going into the workpiece,tool,and
in the cutting zone. chip,as a function of cutting speed.
Temperature Distributions
Fig:Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: a) flank temperature
distribution;and b)tool-chip interface temperature distribution
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
1. Flank wear :It occurs
on the relief face of
the tool and the side
relief angle.
2. Crater wear:It occurs
on the rake face of
the tool.
3. Chipping :Breaking Fig (a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting
away of a small piece [Link] moves to the left. (b) View of the
rake of a turning tool,showing nose radius R
from the cutting edge and crater wear pattern on the rake face of
the tool c)View of the flank face of a turning
of the tool . tool,sowing the average flank wear land VB
and the depth-of-cut line (wear notch)
Wear and Tool Failures: Crater wear
Fig (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various types of cutting tools .(b)
Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures.A study of the types and mechanism of tool
wear and failure is essential to the development of better tool materials
Forces acting in 2-Dimensional cutting
• Cutting forces can be
measured by using suitable
dynamometers or force
transducers mounted on the
machine tool
• They can also be calculated
from the amount of power
consumption,that occurs
during cutting.
Fig :Forces acting on a cutting tool in a two
dimensional cutting .Note that the
resultant force,R,must be collinear to
balance the forces
