Principles
The aim of this part of the curriculum design process is to
decide how learning can be encouraged.
Each principle in the list is there because it is supported by
The Twenty research and theory in any of three fields: second or foreign
language learning, first language learning, and general
Principles educational research and theory.
The principles have been divided into three groups. These three
groups represent the three major divisions of the central circle in
The Twenty the curriculum design diagram.
content and sequencing
Principles format and presentation
monitoring and assessment
1. Frequency: A language course should provide the best possible
coverage of language in use through the inclusion of items that
Content and occur frequently in the language, so that learners get the best return
Sequencing for their learning effort.
2. Strategies and autonomy: A language course should train
Content and learners in how to learn a language and how to monitor and be
aware of their learning, so that they can become effective and
Sequencing independent language learners.
Content and 3 Spaced retrieval: Learners should have increasingly spaced,
repeated opportunities to retrieve and give attention to wanted
Sequencing items in a variety of contexts.
Content and 4 Language system: The language focus of a course needs to be
on the generalisable features of the language.
Sequencing
Content and 5 Keep moving forward: A language course should progressively
cover useful language items, skills and strategies.
Sequencing
6 Teachability: The teaching of language items should take
Content and account of the most favourable sequencing of these items and
should take account of when the learners are most ready to learn
Sequencing them.
Content and 7 Learning burden: The course should help learners make the
most effective use of previous knowledge.
Sequencing
8 Interference: The items in a language course should be
Content and sequenced so that items which are learned together have a
positive effect on each other for learning and so that interference
Sequencing effects are avoided.
Format and 1 Motivation: As much as possible, the learners should be
interested and excited about learning the language and they
Presentation should come to value this learning.
Format and 2 Four strands: A course should include a roughly even balance of
Presentation meaning-focused input, language-focused learning, meaning-
focused output and fluency activities.
Format and 3 Comprehensible input: There should be substantial quantities
Presentation of interesting comprehensible receptive activity in both listening
and reading.
Format and 4 Fluency: A language course should provide activities aimed at
Presentation increasing the fluency with which learners can use the language
they already know, both receptively and productively.
Format and
5 Output: The learners should be pushed to produce the language
Presentation in both speaking and writing over a range of discourse types.
Format and 6 Deliberate learning: The course should include language-
Presentation focused learning on the sound system, spelling, vocabulary,
grammar and discourse areas.
Format and
7 Time on task: As much time as possible should be spent using
Presentation and focusing on the second language.
Format and
8 Depth of processing: Learners should process the items to be
Presentation learned as deeply and as thoughtfully as possible.
Format and 9 Integrative motivation: A course should be presented so that
the learners have the most favourable attitudes to the language,
Presentation to users of the language, to the teacher’s skill in teaching the
language, and to their chance of success in learning the language.
Format and 10 Learning style: There should be opportunity for learners to
work with the learning material in ways that most suit their
Presentation individual learning style.
Monitoring 1 Ongoing needs and environment analysis: The selection,
ordering, presentation, and assessment of the material in a
and language course should be based on a continuing careful
consideration of the learners and their needs, the teaching
Assessment conditions, and the time and resources available.
Monitoring
and 2 Feedback: Learners should receive helpful feedback which will
allow them to improve the quality of their language use.
Assessment
The language curriculum is based on the belief that
Principles literacy is critical to responsible and productive
Underlying citizenship, and that all students can become literate.
The curriculum is designed to provide students with the
the language knowledge and skills that they need to achieve this
Curriculum goal. It aims to help students become successful
language learners, who share the following
characteristics.
Successful language learners:
understand that language learning is a necessary,
life-enhancing, reflective process;
communicate – that is, read, listen, view, speak,
write, and represent – effectively and with
confidence;
make meaningful connections between
themselves, what they encounter in texts, and the
world around them;
think critically;
understand that all texts advance a particular point
of view that must be recognized, questioned,
assessed, and evaluated;
appreciate the cultural impact and aesthetic power
of texts;
use language to interact and connect with
individuals and communities, for personal growth,
and for active participation as world citizens.