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Principal Axes Theorem in Linear Algebra

The document discusses the principal axes theorem, which states that any symmetric matrix can be diagonalized by an orthogonal matrix of its eigenvectors. It provides examples of symmetric, skew-symmetric, and orthogonal matrices, and explains that these matrix types are diagonalizable. Finally, it demonstrates how to use the principal axes theorem to determine if a conic section equation represents an ellipse or hyperbola by rewriting it in matrix form and finding the eigenvalues.

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Sriharshitha Deepala
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19 views22 pages

Principal Axes Theorem in Linear Algebra

The document discusses the principal axes theorem, which states that any symmetric matrix can be diagonalized by an orthogonal matrix of its eigenvectors. It provides examples of symmetric, skew-symmetric, and orthogonal matrices, and explains that these matrix types are diagonalizable. Finally, it demonstrates how to use the principal axes theorem to determine if a conic section equation represents an ellipse or hyperbola by rewriting it in matrix form and finding the eigenvalues.

Uploaded by

Sriharshitha Deepala
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

ENGG2013 Unit 19

The principal axes theorem

Mar, 2011.
Outline
• Special matrices
– Symmetric, skew-symmetric, orthogonal
• Principle axes theorem
• Application to conic sections

kshum ENGG2013 2
Diagonalizable ??
• A square matrix M is called diagonalizable if
we can find an invertible matrix, say P, such
that the product P–1 M P is a diagonal matrix.
– Example

• Some matrix cannot be diagonalized.


– Example

kshum ENGG2013 3
Theorem
An nn matrix M is diagonalizable if and only if we can
find n linear independent eigenvectors of M.
Proof: For concreteness, let’s just consider the 33 case.

The three
columns are
linearly
independent
because by definition
the matrix is
invertible

kshum ENGG2013 4
Proof continued

and

and

kshum ENGG2013 5
Complex eigenvalue
• There are some matrices whose eigenvalues
are complex numbers.
– For example: the matrix which represents rotation
by 45 degree counter-clockwise.

kshum ENGG2013 6
Theorem
If an nn matrix M has n distinct eigenvalues,
then M is diagonalizable

The converse is false:


There is some diagonalizable matrix with repeated eigenvalues.

kshum ENGG2013 7
Matrix in special form
• Symmetric: AT=A.
• Skew-symmetric: AT= –A.
• Orthogonal: AT =A-1, or equivalently AT A = I.
• Examples:

symmetric
symmetric skew-symmetric and
orthogonal
kshum ENGG2013 8
Orthogonal matrix

A matrix M is called orthogonal if

Each column has norm 1

MT M I

Dot product = 1

kshum 9
Orthogonal matrix

A matrix M is called orthogonal if

Any two distinct columns are orthogonal

Dot product = 0

kshum 10
Principal axes theorem
Given any nn symmetric matrix A, we have:
[Link] eigenvalues of A are real.
2. A is diagonalizable.
[Link] can pick n mutually perpendicular (aka
orthogonal) eigenvectors.
Q

Proof omitted.
[Link]
kshum ENGG2013 11
Two sufficient conditions for
diagonalizability

Symmetric,
Distinct eigenvalues
skew-symmetric,
orthogonal

Diagonalizable

kshum ENGG2013 12
Example

kshum ENGG2013 13
Similarity
• Definition: We say that two nn matrix A and B
are similar if we can find an invertible matrix S
such that

• Example: and are similar,

• The notion of diagonalization can be phrased in


terms of similarity: matrix A is diagonalizable if
and only if A is similar to a diagonal matrix.
kshum 14
More examples
• is similar to

because

• and are similar.

kshum 15
Application to conic sections
• Ellipse : x2/a + y2/b = 1.
• Hyperbola : x2/a – y2/b = 1.
• Parabola y = ax2.

kshum ENGG2013 16
Application to conic sections
• Is x2 – 4xy +2y2 = 1 a ellipse, or a hyperbola?
Rewrite using symmetric matrix

Find the characteristic polynomial

Solve for the eigenvalues

kshum 17
Application to conic sections
Diagonalize

Change coordinates

Hyperbola
kshum 18
x – 4xy +2y = 1
2 2

15

10

0
y

-5

-10

-15
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
x

kshum 19
2x + 2xy + 2y = 1
2 2

Rewrite using symmetric matrix

Compute the characteristic polynomial

Find the eigenvalues

kshum 20
2x + 2xy + 2y = 1
2 2
Columns of P are eigenvectors,
Diagonalize normalized to norm 1.

Change of variables

kshum 21
2x + 2xy + 2y = 1
2 2

v
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
y

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1 u
-0.5 0 0.5 1
x

kshum 22

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