Non-destructive
Testing
Unit I
Introduction, Comparison of Destructive and Non-
Destructive Tests.
Application of NDT; Visual Inspection -Basic Principle,
Optical Aids Used for Visual Inspection, Application.
Liquid Penetration Testing - Physical Principles,
Procedure, Penetrant Testing Materials,
Penetrant Testing Methods, Applications and Limitations;
Leak Testing - Measurement of Leakage, Leak Testing
Methods, Leak Detection – Bubble Testing, Helium Leak
Detector.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non destructive testing(NDT) is one of
the important methods used for
evolution and quality control of metal
components
During testing, the metal component
does not get damaged
These tests are used to locate or find out
the defects or flaws in the component
Comparision of destructive and non destructive tests:
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques
used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material,
component surface & subsurface without causing damage or effect to
their future performance or properties. Non-destructive testing is used to
detect abnormalities in physical,chemical or electrical characteristics.
In Destructive Testing, tests are carried out to the specimen's failure, in
order to understand a specimen's structural performance or material
behaviour under different loads. These tests re generally much easier to
carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than non
destructive testing. Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic,
for objects which will be mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a
small number of specimens is negligible.
Nondestructive Testing (NDT)
Involves inspection and analysis of
machinery or components without
affecting the operation or the
properties of the subject.
(As opposed to a tensile test or other
destructive test such as sectioning.)
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
DESTRUCTIVE AND NON
DESTRUCTIVE TEST
NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Used for finding out defects of materials Used for finding out the properties of
the material
Load is not applied on the material Load is applied on the material
No load applications, so no chance for Due to load application, material gets
material damage damaged
No requirement of special equipments Special equipments are required
Non expensive Expensive
Less skill Skill is required
e.g: dye penetrate test, ultrasonic, e.g: tensile test, compression test,
radiography, etc hardness test, etc
What is the difference between destructive
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and nondestructive testing?
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Nondestructive tests are applications for detecting flaws in
materials without impairing their usefulness. Destructive tests
are applications for detecting flaws that impair the use of the
materials such as pressure testin
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Common Uses for NDT
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Product and/or material quality assurance –
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Examples – Run-in test on a new vehicle,
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cleanliness of steel
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Component/machine condition evaluation –
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Example – Inspection of a lift component
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or an elevator rope.
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Predictive method - Vibration analysis on motors,
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and pumps, infrared
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Inspection of transformers.
Common Application of NDT
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Inspection of Raw Products
Inspection following Secondary
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Processing
In-Services Damage Inspection
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Inspection of Raw Products
•Forgings,
•Castings,
•Extrusions,
•etc.
Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
•Machining
•Welding
•Grinding
•Heat treating
•Plating
•etc.
Inspection For
In-Service Damage
•Cracking
•Corrosion
•Erosion/Wear
•Heat Damage
•etc.
Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and
visual inspections are used to
find broken wires and other
damage to the wire rope that is
used in chairlifts, cranes and
other lifting devices.
Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large
above ground tanks
for signs of thinning
due to corrosion.
Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.
Jet Engine Inspection
•Aircraft engines are overhauled after
being in service for a period of time.
•They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
•Fluorescent penetrant inspection is
used to check many of the parts for
cracking.
Crash of United Flight 232
Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went
undetected in an
engine disk was
responsible for the
crash of United
Flight 232.
Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel can
result in the rapid release of a large
amount of energy. To protect
against this dangerous event, the
tanks are inspected using
radiography and ultrasonic testing.
Bridge Inspection
•The US has 578,000 highway
bridges.
•Corrosion, cracking and other
damage can all affect a
bridge’s performance.
•The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss
of 47 lives.
•Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
•Some bridges are fitted with
acoustic emission sensors
that “listen” for sounds of
cracks growing.
Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the
environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic
testing are some of the NDT methods
used.
Remote visual inspection using
a robotic crawler.
Magnetic flux leakage inspection.
This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography of weld joints.
Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of
evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy
current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of
the Bell's bronze casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.
What is the difference between a flaw and
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a defect?
What is the difference between a flaw and
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a defect?
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Almost all materials have lots of flaws.
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When the flaw impacts the performance of the
material, it becomes a defect.
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A defective component is one that will not
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perform as required for the necessary time.
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A “defect” is a deviation from what is allowable.
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Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT)
Blue Etch Anodize (BEA)
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Dye penetrant inspection Liquid penetrant testing (PT or LPI)
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Electromagnetic testing (ET)
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Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)
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Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD)
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Barkhausen testing
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Direct current potential drop measurement (DCPD)
Eddy-current testing (ECT)
Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank
floors, and wire rope
•Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MPI)
•Remote field testing (RFT)
Hardness testing
Impulse excitation technique (IET)
Infrared and thermal testing (IR) -- Thermographic
inspection
Laser testing --Electronic speckle pattern interferometry
--Holographic interferometry
--Low coherence interferometry
--Profilometry
Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection
Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change)
Bubble testing
Halogen diode leak testing
Hydrogen leak testing
Mass spectrometer leak testing
Tracer-gas leak testing method Helium, Hydrogen and
refrigerant gases
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR
spectroscopy
Metallographic replicas
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
Optical microscopy
Positive Material Identification (PMI)
Radiographic testing (RT)
Computed radiography
Digital radiography (real-time)
Neutron radiographic testing (NR)
SCAR (Small Controlled Area Radiography)
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
The common NDT techniques
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Acoustic Emission
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Liquid Penetrant
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Ultrasonic Testing
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Vibration Analysis
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Eddy Current
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Magnetic Particle
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Visual Inspection
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Radiography (X-ray , Gamma -ray)
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Infrared Thermography
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Scanning electron microscopy
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Surface Temper Etch (Nital Etch)
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Ultrasonic testing (UT)
ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology)
Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)
Laser ultrasonics (LUT)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS)
ultrasonics for tubes
Phased array ultrasonics
Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of 3D
Elastic Constants (TOF)
Vibration Analysis
Visual inspection (VT)
Pipeline video inspection
Corroscan/C-scan
IRIS - Internal Rotary Inspection System
3D Computed Tomography
Industrial CT Scanning
Heat Exchanger Life
Assessment System
RTJ Flange Special
Ultrasonic Testing
ADVANTAGES OF NDT
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The equipments are easy to handle
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Defects can be detected without damaging the
components
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Methods are quick and accurate
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Components can be sorted out on the basis of
electrical, magnetic or chemical properties
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Test results and other information can be
conveniently recorded on paper films, cassettes
and floppies
METHODS OF NDT
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Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
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Magnetic Particle Testing
(MPT)
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Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
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Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
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Radiography Testing (RT)
VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual
Inspection
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An assurance that the person conducting the
inspection can see and recognize the
Indications.
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Certification in VT is largely directed toward
weld inspection. However, to maintain any
certification, visual acuity is tested every year.
Visual testing is the most basic and common inspection method involves
in using of human eyes to look for defects. But now it is done by the
use special tools such as video scopes, magnifying glasses, mirrors, or
borescopes to gain access and more closely inspect the subject area.
Visual Testing Equipments:
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Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors),
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Magnifying glasses
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Microscopes (optical and electron)
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Borescopes and fiber optic borescopes
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Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems
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Videoscope.
A borescope is an optical device consisting of a rigid or
flexible tube with an eyepiece on one end, an objective lens
on the other linked together by a relay optical system in
between.
Visual testing is the most basic and common inspection method involves
in using of human eyes to look for defects. But now it is done by the
use special tools such as video scopes, magnifying glasses, mirrors, or
borescopes to gain access and more closely inspect the subject area.
Visual Testing Equipments:
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Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors),
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Magnifying glasses
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Microscopes (optical and electron)
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Borescopes and fiber optic borescopes
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Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems
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Videoscope.
A borescope is an optical device consisting of a rigid or
flexible tube with an eyepiece on one end, an objective lens
on the other linked together by a relay optical system in
between.
Visual Testing Equipments
Fig: Videoscope Fig: Advanced Videoscope Fig: Borescopes
Fig. Microscope Fig: Magnifying glass
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Liquid Penetration Testing
Liquid Penetration Testing -
Physical Principles,
Procedure,
Penetrant Testing Materials
Penetrant Testing Methods
Applications and Limitations
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT), also
called Dye Penetrant
Inspection (DPI) and Penetrant Testing
(PT), is widely used to detect surface
defects in castings, forging, welding,
material cracks, porosities and
possible fatigue failure [Link]
to add Text
Types of LPT
There are three types of penetrant tests
the common ones are those using
Either (i) visible or (ii)fluorescent dyes.
Procedure
The material is cleaned and then coated with a visible
or fluorescent dye solution.
Remove the excess solution after waiting for a
specified time (Dwell Time)
Applie a developer to the material. The developer
acts like a blotter, pulling the dye solutions out of the
imperfections due to the Capillary action.
Visible dyes will show a sharp contrast between
penetrant and developer making the “bleedout” easy to
see.
Fluorescent dyes are viewed with an ultraviolet lamp,
which makes the “bleedout” fluoresce brightly
reveling any material imperfections.
Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing
After adequate penetration time, the excess penetrant is
removed, a developer is applied.
Developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw where an
invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector
[Link] of material with a
surface-breaking crack that is
not visible to the naked eye.
[Link] is applied to the
surface.
[Link] penetrant is
removed.
[Link] is applied,
rendering the crack visible.
Dye Penetrant Testing of a Boiler
Then a liquid with high surface wetting
characteristics is applied to the surface
At first the surface of the of the part and allowed time to seep
material that is to be tested is into surface breaking defects. This
liquid is called penetrant.
cleaned by a liquid. The liquid
is called cleaner.
Liquid Penetration
Testing
The photo to the right shows the results of a visible
penetrant test on a vessel weld.
Procedure:
1. First suspect in a work piece has a defect that is open to the
surface. So thoroughly clean the surface. Then allow the part to
dry. (5-10 minutes)
2. Next,spray a coating of a thin red liquid, the penetrant, onto
the surface and allow the liquid to be absorbed into the defect.
(5 to 25 minutes) Then thoroughly clean the surface again, but
Carefully, & allow the part to dry. ( 5 to 10 min.)
4. Next, spray a very thin layer of a white paint-like material onto
the surface, allow the “paint” to absorb the penetrant out of the
defect, (5 to 15 minutes) and visually inspect the piece.
Applications
Used for detect the surface cracks or
defects
One of the most widely used NDT methods
Used to inspect almost any material
provided that its surface is not extremely
rough
It is used for surface detection of forging,
casting, weld elements
Applications
Used for detect the surface cracks or
defects
One of the most widely used NDT methods
Used to inspect almost any material
provided that its surface is not extremely
rough
It is used for surface detection of forging,
casting, weld elements
Applications
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atmosphere that can be cleaned well
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Parts with cracks open to the
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For mechanical components -
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structural components or aluminum,
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stainless, or steel, etc
On polished stainless parts ,
found cracks that were 0.00004” wide
and 0.003” deep!.
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ADVANTAGES OF DPT
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This method has high sensitivity to small surface
discontinuities.
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Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost
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Indications are produced directly on the surface of the
part and constitute a visual representation of the flaw
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Aerosol spray can make penetrant materials very portable
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Penetrant materials and associated equipments are
relatively in expensive.
LIMITATIONS OF DPT
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Only surface breaking defects can be detected
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The inspector must have direct access to the surface
being inspected
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Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection
sensitivity
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Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is
required
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Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Leak Testing
Leak Testing - Measurement of Leakage,
Leak Testing Methods,
Leak Detection – Bubble Testing,
Helium Leak Detector.
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LEAK TESTING
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LEAK TESTING is the branch of nondestructive
testing that concerns the escape or entry of
liquids or gases from pressurized or into
evacuated components or systems intended to
hold these liquids.
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Leaking fluids (liquid or gas) can penetrate from
inside a component or assembly to the outside,
or vice versa, as a result of a pressure
differential between
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Leak testing procedures for one or
a combination of the following:
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1. Locating (detecting and
pinpointing) leaks
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2. Determining the rate of leakage
from one leak or from a system
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3. Monitoring for leakage
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Leak Testing Objectives
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Reliable leak testing decreases costs by reducing
the number of reworked products, warranty
repairs, and liability claims.
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Leak testing has a great impact on the safety and
performance of a product.
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To prevent the loss of costly materials or energy
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To prevent contamination of the environment
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To ensure component or system reliability
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Measurement of Leakage
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A leak is measured by how much
leakage it will pass under a given
set of conditions.
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Because leakage will vary with
conditions, it is necessary to state
both the leak rate and the
prevailing conditions to define a
leak properly.
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At a given temperature, the product of the
pressure and the volume of a given quantity of
gas is proportional to its mass.
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Therefore, leak rate is often expressed as the
product of some measure of pressure and volume
per unit of time-
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-for example, torr liters per second (torr · L/s),
micron liters per second ( L/s), and atmosphere
cubic centimeters per second (atm cm 3 /s).
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The most frequently used unit in vacuum leak
testing is torr liters per second.
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The recent adoption of the Système International
(SI) system of units has resulted in a new
measure of leakage,
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pascal cubic meters per second (Pa · m
3 /s).
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Another new unit is moles per second (mol/s),
which has the advantage that information
concerning temperature implied in other units is
automatically
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Another unit of leak rate generally accepted is
the gas-flow rate that causes a pressure rise per
unit of time of 1 m Hg/s (40 in. Hg/s) in a volume
of 1 L (0.26 gal.). This is termed the lusec
(litermicrons per second).
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The clusec (centiliter microns per second) unit is
equal to 0.01 lusec. Boyle's law (PV = K, where P
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is pressure, V is volume, and K is a constant)
enables one to convert these units into more
meaningful volumetric terms;
Leak Testing Methods
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Bubble Testing
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Pressure method
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Ultrsonic leak detection
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Bubble Testing
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A simple method for leak testing small vessels
pressurized with any gas is to submerge them
in a liquid and observed Bubbles.
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If the test vessels is sealed at atmospheric
pressure, a pressure differential can be obtained
by
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---pumping a partial vacuum over the liquid or
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--- by heating the liquid.
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The sensitivity of this test is
increased by
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--[Link] the pressure above the
liquid,
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-- 2. Density,
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--- 3. The depth of immersion in the
liquid,
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--- [Link] surface tension of the liquid.
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Immersion Testing.
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Oils are a more sensitivity medium than ordinary
water.
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Therefore, it is common practice to test electric
components in a bath of hot perfluorocarbon.
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When testing by reducing the pressure above the
liquid, several precautions must be observed,
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particularly if the reduced pressure brings the liquid
close to its boiling point.
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If the liquid begins to boil, a false leak indication will
be given.
Immersion
Testing.
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If water is used, it must
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be distilled or deionized and should be handled
with minimal sloshing to reduce the absorbed-
gas content.
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A small amount of wetting agent is normally
added to water to reduce surface tension.
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With the addition of the proper wetting agent,
water can be even more sensitive than oils.
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Water-base solutions can be used successfully to
detect leaks as small as
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10 -6 atm cm 3 /s.
Mass Spectrometer Testing or Helium Leak Detector.
A mass spectrometer is basically a device for sorting
charged particles.
The sample gas enters the analyzer, where its molecules are
bombarded by a stream of electrons emitted by a filament.
The bombarded molecules lose an electron and become
positively charged ions, which are electrostatically accelerated
to a high velocity.
Because the analyzer lies in a magnetic field
perpendicular to the ion path, the ions travel in distinct,
curved paths according to their mass.
and the resulting current flow is proportional to the
quantity of the ions of that particular mass.
In particular, the helium mass spectrometer will
detect only helium;
All other molecules passing through the detector
tube will miss the target or collector because of
their differences in mass or momentum from
helium.
The theoretical sensitivity of the helium mass
spectrometer is about 10 -12 atm cm 3 /s; the
sensitivity of the residual-gas
analyzer is about one order of magnitude less.
Because mass spectrometers must operate in a
vacuum, they are ideally suited to the leak testing
of vacuum systems.
Schematic of the leak testing of sealed components internally pressurized with helium
tracer gas and enclosed in a bell jar
Small units, such as sealed electronic
components or nuclear-fuel elements, are often
internally pressurized with tracer gas;
Leakage is detected by placing these units in an
evacuated bell jar and monitoring the outgassing
with a Mass spectrometer (Fig.)