TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING-II
Lecture-4
Introduction to road alignment
(Horizontal alignment)
Muhammad Usman Haider
Lecturer
Email:
usman4haider@[Link]
Horizont
al
curve
Horizontal Curves
• A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to
provide change in direction to the central line of a
road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve,
the centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards
through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
• P = W v²∕gR
• Where,
• P = centrifuge force, kg
• W = weight of the vehicle, kg
• R = radius of the circular curve, m
• v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
• g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec
P=mv²/g
R
h
A B
W F
b
Cont…..
• P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor.
The centrifuge ratio is thus equal to v²∕gR
• The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has two effects
Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer
wheels
Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
Overturning effect
• The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when
Ph = Wb/2, or when P/W = b/2h. This means that there is
danger of overturning when the centrifugal when the
centrifugal ratio P/W or v²/gR attains a values of b/2h.
Transverse skidding effect
• P = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =fW
• Since P = f W, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to
‘f ‘. In other words when the centrifugal ratio
attains a value equal to the coefficient of lateral
friction there is a danger of lateral skidding.
• Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on
a horizontal curve, the centrifugal ratio should
always be less than b/2h and also ‘f’
• ‘f’ is less than b/2h.-The vehicle would skid and
not overturn
• b/2h is lower than ‘f’-The vehicle would overturn
on the outer side before skidding
Superelevation
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal
force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the
pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope
throughout the length of the horizontal curve,
this transverse inclination to the pavement
surface is known as Superelevation or cant or
banking.
• The Superelevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio
of the height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width.
E=e
B
B
Superelevation
Rv
P (centrifugal
force)
W 1 ft e
W sin f W cos WV 2
sin WV 2
cos
gR
Analysis of
•Superelevation
The force acting on the vehicle while moving on a
circular curve of radius R meters, at speed of v
m/sec are
• The centrifugal force P = Wv²/gR acting
horizontal outwards through the centre of gravity,
CG
• The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically
downloads through the CG
• The frictional force developed between the wheels
and the pavement counteractions transversely
along the pavement surface towards the centre
of the curve
Superelevation cont…
WV 2 WV 2
W sin f W c o s sin c os
gR gR
O
ta n f V 1 f t a n
2
Dividing Cos α on both sides
gR
R
O e f V 1 f e
2
(1-fe)=1-0.15x.o7=0.99≈ 1
R gR
O R V 2
g f
R 2
V
O e f e O 2
gR e f V
R R
127 R
V in m/Sec V in kmph
R in ‘m’ R in ‘m’
Cont…
• e = rate of Superelevation = tan Ө
• f = design value of lateral friction coefficient =
0.15
• v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
• R = radius of the horizontal curve, mg =
acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec²
Maximum Superelevation
• In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less
dense materials like straw or cotton, the centre of gravity of the
loaded vehicle will be relatively high and it will not be safe for such
vehicles to move on a road with a high rate of Superelevation.
Because of the slow speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly
small in the case of bullock carts. Hence to avoid the danger of
toppling of such loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to
limit the value of maximum allowable Superelevation.
• Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of
Superelevation in plan and rolling terrains and is snow bound
areas as 7.0 %.
• On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevation
upto
10% .
• On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be
necessary to limit the maximum Superelevation to 4.0 %.
Minimum Superelevation
• From drainage consideration it is
necessary to have a minimum cross to
drain off the surface water. If the
calculated Superelevation is equal to or
less than the camber of the road surface,
then the minimum Superelevation to
be provided on horizontal curve may be
limited to the camber of the surface.
Design ofSuperelevation
• Step-1: The Superelevation for 75 percent of design speed (v
m/sec/kmph) is calculated neglecting the friction.
2
e
(0.75V )2 e V
1 2 7 R 225 R
• Step-2: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07 the value
so obtained is provided. If the value of ‘e’ as step-1 exceeds 0.07 then
provides maximum Superelevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with step-
3 or 4.
• Step-3: Check the coefficient of friction of friction developed for the
maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value of design speed.
2
f V 0.07
127R
• If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15 the Superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as
given in step -4.
Cont….
• Step-4 The allowable speed (Va m/sec. or Va Kmph)
at The curve is calculated by considering the design
coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum
Superelevation.
• e+f=0.07+0.15=va²/127R
• If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher
than the design speed, then the design is adequate
and provides a Superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
• If the allowable speed is less than the design
speed, the speed is limited to the allowed speed Va
kmph calculated above and Appropriate warning
sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to
restrict and regulate the speed.
Attainmentof
superelevation
Split-up into two parts::
• Elimination of crown of the cambered section
•Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Elimination of crown of the cambered section
1st Method: Outer edge rotated about the crown
Attainment of superelevation
Disadvantages
• Small length of road – cross slope less than
camber
• Drainage problem in outer half
2nd Method: Crown shifted
outwards
Disadvantages
• Large negative superelevation on outer half
• Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along shifted
crown
Attainment of superelevation
Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
1st Method: Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge and
raising the outer edge each by half the total amount of superelevation)
Advantages
• Earthwork is balanced
• Vertical profile of the C/L remains unchanged
Disadvantages
• Drainage problem: depressing the inner
edge below the general level
Attainment of superelevation
2nd Method: Rotation about the Inner edge (raising both the centre as well
as
outer edge – outer edge is raised by the total amount of superelevation)
Advantages
• No drainage problem
Disadvantages
• Additional earth filling
• C/L of the pavement is also raised (vertical alignment
of the road is changed)
Example-1
• The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design
speed is 50kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction
is 0.15.
Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop
Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is
provided.
Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and
outer wheels should be equal.
Example-2:
• A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal
curve of radius 480m. Design the rate of superelevation for
mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the
pavement be raised with respect to the centre line , if the
pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line.
Exapmle-3:
• Design the super elevation for a horizontal
highway curve of radius 500m and speed
100kmph
Example-4
• The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There
is horizontal curve of radius 200m on a certain
locality. Calculate the superelevation needed
to maintain this speed.
Radius of Horizontal Curve
• The ruling minimum radius of the curve for ruling
design speed v m/sec. or V kmph is given by.
V2
RRulling 127(e
•
f )
According to the earlier specifications of the
IRC, the ruling minimum radius of the horizontal
curve was calculated from a speed value, 16
kmph higher than the design speed i,e., (V+16)
kmph.
Example-1
• Calculate the values of ruling minimum and
absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve
of a national highway in plane terrain. Assume
ruling design speed and minimum design
speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
• On horizontal corves, especially when they are not of
very large radii, it is common to widen the pavement
slightly more than the normal width,
• Widening is needed for the following reasons :
The driver experience difficulties in steering around the
curve.
The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel
don’t track the front wheel. known as ‘Off tracking’
For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not
to follow the central path of the lane, but to use the outer
side at the beginning of the curve.
While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve
there is psychological tendency to maintain a greater
clearance between the vehicle for safety.
Off tracking
• An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only
the front wheels can be turned, when this
vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal
curve, the rear wheel do not follow the same
path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking.
• The required extra widening of the pavement at
the horizontal curves depends on the length of
the wheel base of the vehicle ‘l’, radius of the
curve ‘R’ and the psychological factors.
Analysis of extra widening on curves
• It is divided into two parts;
Mechanical widening (Wm): the widening required to
account for the off tracking due to the rigidity of
wheel base is called mechanical widening
Psychological widening (Wps): extra width of the
pavement is also provided for psychological reasons
such as , to provide for greater maneuverability of
steering at high speed, to allow for the extra space
for overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater
clearance for crossing and overturning
vehicles on curve.
• Total widening W = Wps+ Wm
Mechanical Widening
Wm
Wm = R2 – R1
B R1
From Δ OAB,
OA2 = OB2 – BA2
l R2
R12 = R22 – l2
C
A O
(R2 – Wm)2 = R22 –
l2
lW
2 = W 2 (2 R –
m = lm / (2 R
2 2 – Wm)
W
Wm)= l2 / 2 R (Approx.)
m
or Wm=nl²/2R
Where, R = Mean radius of the curve in m,
n=no. of traffic lanes
R = Mean radius of the curve, m
l = Length of Wheel base of longest vehicle , m
( l = 6.0 m or 6.1m for commercial vehicles)
V= design speed, kmph
Psychological Widening
V
W Ps
9.5 R (Empirical formula)
V = Design speed of the vehicle, km/h
R = Radius of the curve, m
Total extra widening = Mechanical
widening
+Psychological Widening
W e nl V
2
R
2 R 9 . 5
Method of introducing extra widening
• With transition curve: increase the width at an
approximately uniform rate along the transition curve - the
extra width should be continued over the full length of
circular curve
• Without transition curves: provide two-third widening on
tangent and the remaining one-third on the circular
curve beyond the tangent point
• With transition curve: Widening is generally
applied equally on both sides of the carriageway
• Without transition curve: the entire widening should be
done on inner side
• On sharp curves of hill roads: the entire widening should be
done on inner side
Method of introducing extra widening
Follow Fig- 4.27, p-123
Example-1
• Calculate the extra widening required for a
pavement of width 7m on a horizontal curve of
radius 250m if the longest wheel base of
vehicle expected on the road is 7.0 m. design
speed is 70 kmph.
Example-2
• Find the total width of two lane road on a
horizontal curve for a new National highway
to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a
ruling minimum radius having ruling design
speed of 80 kmph. Assume necessary data as
per IRC
Horizontal transition curves
• When a non circular curve is introduce between a
straight and a circular curve has a varying radius
which decreases from infinity at the straight end
(tangent point) to the desired radius of the
circular curve at the other end (curve point) for
the gradual introduction of centrifugal force is
known as transition curve.
Circular curve
Straight curve
Objectives for providing transition curve
To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the
tangent point and the beginning of the circular curve,
avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the
comfort of passengers.
To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own
comfort and security
To provide gradual introduction of super elevation
To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Type of transition curve
• spiral or clothoid
• cubic parabola Follow the Fig-4.29, p-126 of highway
Engineering by S.K. Khanna and
• Lemniscate C.E.G.
Just
• IRC recommends spiralo as the transition curve
because it fulfills the requirement of an ideal
transition curve, that is;
rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is
consistent
Radius of the transition curve is infinity at the straight
edge and changes to R at the curve point (Ls
ᾳ1/R)and calculation and field implementation is very
easy.
Length of transition curve
• Case-1:Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
0.0215V 3
LS
CR
80
C 0.5 < C <
(75 0.8
• Where,
V curve
Ls= length of transition ) in ‘m’
C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal accleration, m/
sec²
R= Radius of the circular curve in ‘m’
case-2:Rate of introduction of super-elevation
• If the pavement is rotated about the center line.
Ls=EN/2=eN/2(W+We)
• If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge
Ls= EN= eN(W+We)
• Where W is the width of pavement
• We is the extra widening
• Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N
case-3:By empirical formula
• According to IRC standards:
For plane and rolling terrain:
2.7V 2
LS
R
For mountainous and steep terrain:
2
LS V
R
The design length of transition curve(Ls) will be
the highest value of case-1,2 and 3
Shift of the transition curve
Shift of the transition curve ‘S’
S L s
2
24R
Example-1
• Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift using
the following data;
Design speed= 65 kmph
Radius of circular curve= 220 m
Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavment
Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m
Example-2
• A national highway passing through rolling terrain in
heavy rain fall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500 m.
Design the length of transition curve using the fallowing
data.
Design speed of vehicle= 80 kmph
Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
Pavement rotated about the inner edge of the pavment.
Pavement width excluding extra widening= 7 m.
