Module 3

Electrical
Fundamentals
Akul Garg
instructor
3.1 Electron
Theory

2
 Matter – Elements -
Compounds
• Matter: everything that
occupies space and has
weight.
• Elements: A substance which
cannot be reduced to a
simpler substance by
chemical means (gold, iron,
copper, oxygen, …)
• 2 or more elements
chemically combined:
compound.
• 2 or more elements not
chemically combined: 3
 Matter – Elements -
Compounds
• Elements of a
mixture can be
separated with
physical
means.

• Elements of a
compound can
be separated
only by chemical
4
means.
 Molecule
• Molecule: A
s
chemical
combination of 2 or
more atoms.
– The molecule is the
smallest part of a
compound that has
the characteristics
of that compound.

5
 Atom
• Molecules are
s Atoms of the
Carbon
element
made of particles
called atoms.
– Atoms are the
smallest parts of an
element that has the
characteristics of
that element.
Atoms of the
Oxygen
element

6
 Let’s put everything
Na
together
• A mixture Compounds
NaClCl NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
would be The smallest part is
the…
mixing Na
and Cl. Molecule Na
Cl
• A compound which is made
of…
would be
producing Atoms of specific elements Na,
Cl
NaCl.

7
 Inside an
• Subatomi atom
c
elements:
– Protons
– Neutron
s
– Electrons

• The reason that there are different kinds of

elements is that the number and the arrangement
of the protons and the electrons within the atom
are different for different elements .
8
Examples of atoms of various
elements

Oxygen
(O)

• The atom of
each element
has different
number and
arrangement of
Natrium
Chlorine protons and
(Cl)
(Na) electrons. 9
 Charges of subatomic
elements
• Proton: positive
• Neutrons: no
charge
• Electron: negative

• All atoms, in their neutral state, contain an equal number of protons

and electrons.
• Atomic number: How many electrons (or protons) does an
atom contain?
• Carbon: atomic number 6
• Hydrogen: atomic number 1.
10
 The valence
• shell
The valence shell is the outermost shell
of the atom.
• The electrons of the valence shell
are called valence electrons.
• It usually contains less electrons than
the maximum number of electrons it
can hold.
• Atoms do not like the valence shell to
be incomplete:
– Atoms that contain small number of
valence electrons (1 or 2), want to get
rid of them.
– Atoms that contain large number of
valence electrons (missing 1 or 2)
want to receive electrons to fill it. Oxygen
(O)

11
 How are the compounds
made?

• Find the right partner:

– Sharing electrons. (e.g. H2O)
– One atom gives away and another receives electrons (e.g.
NaCl)

12
 Conductor
• Atoms that have
s
a single
electron in the
valence shell,
are the best Coppe
r
conductors.
• It can easily
move from
atom to atom
and form
electric
current.
13
 Insulator
s
• Atoms that contain
many electrons in the
valence shell (5- 8)
are insulators. Oxygen
(O)
• They do not allow
their valence
electrons to move
freely, thus no electric
current can be
formed.
14
 Semiconducto
rs
• Their conductivity is
between
conductors and
insulators.

15
3.2 Static electricity
and conduction

16
Electrons can move between
materials
• Electrons can
move between
materials, usually
by friction.
• When electrons are • When a body acquires
removed from atoms, they electrons, it becomes
become positively negatively charged and
charged and they are
named positive ions. it is named negative
ion.
17
 Static
• electricity
When a charged body
comes close to another
charged body, an electric
field is generated
between them that
generates an electric
force.

18
 Charged
bodies
• Like charges repel
each other.
• Unlike charges
attract
each other.

Electrostatic fields generate electrostatic

force. 19
 How much is the attract/repel
•
force?
Coulomb’s law:
– The force is directly
proportional to the product
of the individual charges.
– The force is inversely
proportional to the square
of the distance between
them.
• F is the force in Newton
(N)
• k is a constant value (depends upon the medium): 9.0
x 109 N*m2/Cb2 for the air.
• q1 and q2 are the charges in Coulomb (C)
• r is the distance between the charges in meters (m).

• Unit of charge q: Coulomb (C).

• 1 coulomb is the charge
of 6.24×1018 electrons. 20
 Coulomb’s law
example
• Find the force 10 C
-4 10-5
+ C
applied 3m -

between the
two charges.

21
 Discharg
• e
If the body contacts with
another body being neutral or
having negative charge (i.e. too
many electrons), electric current
will flow between them.
• Current will flow from the
body with negative to the one
with positive charge.
• The flow of electrons will
continue until both matters have
the equal charge.

• Current is the flow of

electrons caused by the
electric force generated by an
electric field. 22
 Conduction of solids, liquids,
gases and vacuum
• Solids: current a result of the movement of
valence electrons in an electric field. Only metals
conduct electricity. Best conductors are the one
with a single valence electron.
• Liquids: Only liquid metals conduct electricity.
Pure water does not conduct electricity.
– However, electrolytes (i.e. water + ions) can
conduct electricity. E.g. salt water is a conductor.
• Gases: Insulators. However, by applying high electric
fields current can flow through gasses (e.g.
lightning).
• Vacuum: conductor
23
3.3 Electrical
Terminology

24
 Potential and potential
difference
• Potential: How hard it is to move a positive
charge outside the electric field. It is measured
in Volts (V).
• Potential difference or Voltage (V): The
difference between the potentials of two
points. It is measured in Volts (V).

25
 Electric
current
• Electron movement that forms the electric
current is proportional to the applied
Voltage.

• Although the electron flow from the lower to the higher

potentials, the conventional current flow is the
opposite. 26
 Random and direct
drift
• Free electrons
move in random
manner inside the
metal structure:
random drift.
• When voltage is
applied the
drift becomes
direct.
• Electric current (I) is
measured in Amperes 27
 Exampl
• How much charge
e
passes through
this device in 10
seconds?

28
 Resistance and
conduction
• Resistance (R): opposition in current flow,
due to molecular structure of an element. It
is measured in Ohm (Ω)
• Conductance (G): the opposite of
Resistance. It is measured in Siemens (S).

29
3.4 Generation of
Electricity

30
 Voltage produced by
friction
• Rubbing materials
together.

31
 Voltage produced by
pressure
• Some materials, such as
the quartz crystal, produce
voltage difference, when
pressured.
• Suitable when small
voltages are required
(e.g. in microphones,
watches).

32
 Voltage produced by
• heat
Thermocouple: A
junction of two metals
that when heated,
produces voltage
difference.
• Principle of operation:
– When copper is heated,
electrons move to the
cold end.
– When iron is heated,
electrons move to the
hot end.
– Thus, voltage difference
is generated.

33
 Voltage produced by
•
light
Photoelectric voltage:
• Photosensitive
surface emits
electrons, when hit
by light.
• The emitted
electrons are
attracted by a the
anode.
• New electrons are fed
to the photosensitive
surface by the battery. 34
 Voltage produced by chemical
action
• The primary cell:
– Zinc and copper
electrodes.
– Dilute H2SO4(sulfuric
acid) electrolyte is
used to ionize the Zn.
– Anions can pass
through the porous
disk.

• Principle of operation:
– Zn in the dilute is dissolved in Zn+2 and 2e-. Electrons flow from Zn to
Cu electrode.
– H2SO4is dissolved in 2H+ and SO4--
– 2H+ are attracted by the copper, while SO4-- by the Zinc electrode.
– Zn+2 + SO4-- produce ZnSO4, which makes Zn electrode to be eaten
away. 35
– When Zn is used up, no current flows.
 Voltage produced by
magnetism
• Conductor +
magnetic field
+ movement.
• The direction
of the current
depends on the
direction of
the
movement.
• Used in DC
motors. 36
3.5 DC sources of
electricity

37
 Primary
• Electrons flow fromcell
Zn electrode to Cu.
• SO4-- ions from the H2
(sulfuric
SO4 acid) electrolyte
eat up the Zn
electrode.
• When Zn is used up
the primary cell is
dead.
• Primary cells cannot
be recharged.
• Typical battery cells are based on the
primary cell:
• Anode: Zinc
• Cathode: Carbon
• Electrolyte: mixture of ammonium
chloride, manganese dioxide, graphite,
water, ...
• Battery anode is the source of electrons (Zinc).
• Battery cathode is the destination (Carbon). 38
 Secondary (Lead acid)
• cell
Secondary cells can be recharged.
• Pb is the Lead element (anode).
• PbO2is the Lead peroxide.
• Electrons flow from anode to cathode.
• PbSO4is generated in both the anode
and cathode.
• The amount of H2SO4in the
electrolyte decreases.
• When the electrodes are covered by PbSO4
and there is no more H2SO4in the
electrolyte the battery is discharged.

• To recharge: Place a voltage source, so

that electrons flow to the opposite
direction.
39
 Cell
•
polarization
Cell polarization reduces the performance
of batteries.
• Hydrogen bubbles in the cathode increase
the internal resistance of the cell and reduce
the output voltage.
• Solutions:
– Let the bubbles escape in the air.
– Add water to the electrolyte.
– Add a substance rich in oxygen to combine
with hydrogen and form water.

40
 Local
action
• Normally, Zinc is not pure.
• Impurities (e.g. iron) create small “cells”
inside the cell, so the chemical actions do
not totally cease when the battery is not
active. This is called “local action”.
• Solution:
– Adding a small amount of Mercury (Hg) in
the Zinc, which eliminates the impurities.

41
 Types of primary
• cellsdry cell.
Primary
• Leclanché cell (deprecated)
• Daniell cell (deprecated)
• Mercury battery (1.35V, banned
from EU in 1991)
• Alkaline: Mercury
battery
– Higher durability that typical battery
cells.
– Electrolyte: potassium hydroxide (KOH)
• Lithium - metal (1.7 – 3.7V)

42
 Types of secondary
• cells
Lead-Acid cells:
– Anode: lead, cathode lead
peroxide, electrolyte water +
H2SO4.
– Cell voltage: 2V
• Nickel-Cadmium cells (NiCad):
– Superior to lead-acid.
– Anode: nickel dioxide, cathode:
Cadmium, electrolyte: potassium
hydroxide + water.
– Cell voltage: 1.2V
– Provides over 1000
charges/discharges cycles.
– Very low internal resistance.
– Good low temperature performance.
– Used in aircrafts. 43
 Connecting cells to form a
• battery
Cell capacity is the amount
of current a cell can
provide.
– It depends on the size of
the plates.
• By placing cells in series we
increase the output
voltage.
• By placing cells in parallel
we increase the battery
capacity (i.e. the
amperehours)

44
Lead-acid / NiCad battery
arrangement
• Plates,
separators
(nylon),
electrodes.

Battery capacity is measured in Ampere-hours. (e.g. 400

AmH means the battery can provide 400A in 1hour or
100A in 4h).
45
 Battery
• maintenance
A hydrometer is used to
test the condition of the
electrolyte. (It measures
active ingredient’s gravity).
• Adding active ingredient
to the electrolyte to retain• Floating charge:
gravity value.
for idle batteries
• Equalizing charge
(periodically): restores all to keep them fully
cells to maximum charged.
specific gravity. • Fast charge:
emergency
only. 46
 Thermocouple
•
s
Very useful for
measuring
temperatures
between two points.
• Nickel-chromium
and Nickel-
aluminum are often
used.
• Usage:
measure
exhaust gas
temperature. 47
 Photovoltaic
• Generate systems
current from
sunlight.
• Multiple
photoconductive
cells connected
together to form a
photovoltaic
system.

48
3.6 DC
circuits

49
 Ohm’s
• I: current in law
Amperes
(A)
• V: voltage
(V)
• R:
V VI R I
V
I
resistance
R R
(R)
The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit
resistance.

50
 Ohm’s law
• What is
example
the
current?

51
 Series and Parallel DC
•
circuits
Series:
Rtotal = R1+ R2+…+Rn
Vtotal = V1 + V2 +…+Vn

• Parallel:
1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2
+…+1/Rn
– For 2 parallel
resistances:
R1,2 = (R1*R2)/(R1+R2)
Itotal = I1 + I2 +…+In
52
Kirchhoff's
law

53
 Source
s

• Sources connected together may

increase or lower output voltage,
depending on the connection polarity.

54
 Exercise
I=
1 R=
2Α 6Ω

V
=?

55
 Exercise
2
R = 2Ω R=
1Ω

Va = ?

V=
12V

56
 Exercise
3
R1 = 2Ω R2 =
4Ω
Va Vb
=? =?

2Ω
R3 =
V=
4V

57
 Exercise
4= ?
I1

R1 = 2Ω

R2 = 4Ω

V=
12V

58
 Exercise
5 I1 = ?
R1 = 2Ω

R2 = 4Ω

R3 = 4Ω

V=
12V

59
 Exercise
6
R1 = R4 =
1Ω 1Ω
R2 =
3Ω Va
R3 = =?
4Ω

V = 12V

60
 Exercise
R17
= 1Ω R2 =
3Ω

Va = ?

R3 = 4Ω

R4 =
2Ω

V=
12V

61
 Exercise
8R1 = R2 =
1Ω 1Ω

I3 R3 =
=? 2Ω

R4 =
2Ω

V1 = V2 =
4V 4V

62
 Exercise
3Ω
9
R1 = 1Ω R2 =

Va R3 =
4Ω
=?
R4 =
2Ω

R5 =
R0 =

1Ω
1Ω

V1 = V2 =
4V 2V

63
 Exercise
R1 =
10 R3 =
1Ω 3Ω

Va
=?
R2 = R4 =
4Ω 2Ω

V=
4V

64
 Exercise
R1 =
1Ω
11 R4 =
3Ω
R3 =
1Ω

I3 = ?
R2 = R5 =
5Ω 2Ω

V=
4V

65
 Exercise
Va
12
R2 =
=? 5Ω

5Ω
R3 =
R4
R1 =
5Ω

=1Ω

V=
4V

66
3.7
Resistance

67
 Resistance and
resistivity
• Electrical Resistance is affected by the
amount of free electrons that the material
contains. It is measured in Ohms (Ω)
• Electrical Resistivity shows how much a
material opposes the flow of current, given
its properties (e.g. size).
• ρ: resistivity in Ωm
 R Al • R resistance in Ω
• l: length in m
• A: area in m2
68
Temperature coefficient and
resistivity of materials
Material Resistivity (Ωm)
-8
Silver 1.51×10
-8
Copper 1.59×10
-8
Gold 2.4×10
-8
Aluminum 2.45×10
-8
Hard Steel 46×10
-8
Iron 8.9×10
-8
Platinum 9.81×10
-8
Manganin 41×10
(Cu, Mn, Ni alloy)

Mercury 94×10-8

Nichrome 110×10-8
(Ni, Fe, Cr alloy)
-8
Carbon (pure) 7000×10

69
Electric resistors color
code

70
 Types of
resistors
Carbon resistors Wire
resistors

• Carbon resistors
wattage ratings: 0.125
– 2Watts. • Insulated metallic wire
• Generally speaking, the (e.g. Nickel-Chromium).
larger their physical size • Higher wattage rating than
the higher its wattage the carbon resistors (suitable
rating. for high currents).
71
 Potentiometer, Rheostat
and Wheatstone
bridge
• Potentiometer:
Voltage divider.
– Can be used to obtain
a specific voltage RL
VL Vs
R2 
– and to measure L
R
unknown
voltages.
• Rheostat: A
potentiometer acting
as a variable resistor.
72
 Wheatstone
•
bridge
An instrument used for
measuring resistance
with very high
accuracy.
– Based on 2 voltage
dividers: R1, R3and R2,
Rx.
– The Wheatstone bridge
is balanced when the
two dividers are in the
RX R2 R2
same ration with each  R X  R3
other. R3 R1
– Then, the
voltmeter reads
R1 73
3.8
Power

74
 Powe
r
• Power is the rate by which energy
is produced or consumed.
• Energy is: E  V  I  t
• Energy is measured in Joules
• V*I is the power
2
V
P V  P P I 2 
I R R
Power is measured in Watts
(W)
75
Power in a complex
circuit

• Ptotal = P1 + P2 +…+Pn

76
More
examples

77
3.9 Capacitance -
Capacitor

78
 What is a
capacitor?
• A capacitor is a
device that stores
electrical energy in
an electrostatic
field.

79
 What is the electrostatic
• field?
Any charged particle is surrounded by invisible lines of
force, called electrostatic lines of force.
– They are polarized from positive to negative.
– They radiate from a charged particle in straight lines and do
not form closed loops.
– They have the ability to pass through any known material.
– They have the ability to distort the orbits of tightly bound
electrons.

80
 A simple
•
capacitor
The positive and
negative charges
are attracted.
• An electrostatic
field is created
between the two
plates.
• The capacitor
opposes changes
in voltage.
– While, the inductor
opposes changes
in current. 81
 The
• capacitance
Capacitance shows how
much electric charge
Q
can be stored in a
capacitor.
C V
• It is measured in Farad
A
(F) C 

r 0
d
• C: capacitance
• εr: relative permittivity or
dielectric constant (free space εr =
1)
Permittivity (ε): how an electric • ε0: permittivity of free space
field affects and is affected by (ε0= 8.854x10-12 F/m)
a dielectric medium • A: plate area
 Voltage rating of
capacitors
• Voltage rating of
a capacitor is the
minimum voltage
that causes the
breakdown of the
dielectric and
destroys the • If we exceed the
capacitor. Also breakdown voltage,
called
breakdown the capacitor will be
voltage. conductive.
83
 Capacitor leakage
current
• Ideally, the resistance of the
dielectric is considered
infinite and no current flows
between the plates.
• However, the resistance is
very high, so a very small
current flows between the
plates, called leakage
current.
84
 Energy stored in a
capacitor
• A capacitor can
store energy, even if 1
disconnected from E 2 CV 2

a circuit.
1Q 2
• It can act as a E
temporary battery. 2 C
1
E  2 QV
85
 Charging a
capacitor

• Voltage will gradually

increase
• Current will
gradually become
zero.
86
 Discharging a
capacitor

• Both voltage
and current will
gradually
become zero.

87
 RC time
constant
• Time constant in an
RC circuit is the
time required to
charge a capacitor
to 63%.
• It is equal to:
  RC
– τ in seconds
– R in Ohms
– C in Farads
88
Capacitors in series and in
parallel

89
 Types of
Can be:
capacitors
- Polarized: must operate with the correct polarity.
- Non-polarized: polarity does not matter.
When large capacitance is
required

Paper capacitor (non

polarized) Electrolytic capacitors (polarized)
plates: Al, dielectric: Aluminum
oxide
When small capacitance is
required

500nF x 500V Mica

capacitor (non-
polarized) 90
 Electrolytic
capacitors
• Dielectric is used to
make d extremely
small.
• The length of the
terminal shows
correct polarity
(longer is +).

91
3.10
Magnetism

92
 Magnet
s
• There are
natural
magnets.
• Artificial
magnets    r  0
– Permanent
• The degree of magnetization of
a–material is called • μr: relative
Temporary
permeability.
• Permeability is measured in permeability.
Henries per meter (H/m) • μ0: permeability of
or Newton per Ampere free space. (4π*10-7
square (N/A2) Η/m) 93
•
 Types of
•
magnetism
Diamagnetism: A weak repulsion to a material
by an externally applied magnetic field. It occurs
in all materials.
• Paramagnetism: A form of magnetism that
occurs in a presence of an externally
applied magnetic field, when relative
permeability is greater than 1.
• Ferromagnetism: Typical magnetism (e.g.
permanent magnets, natural or artificial).
No external magnetic field is required.
110
 North and south magnetic
•
•
poles
Like poles repel, unlike attract.
Distance between geographic
and magnetic poles is ~500Km.

95
 Magnetic
flux
• Magnetic Flux Density (B): B
The density of magnetic lines
 A
of force leaving or entering
the pole of a magnet.
– It is measured in Tesla (T)
– Magnetic Flux : Φ, number
of magnetic lines, measured
in Weber (W)
– Area: A, measured in m2

96
 Magnetic
shielding
• Soft iron (iron with small quantity of carbon
can be easily magnetized and it can be used
to distract the magnetic lines.

97
The magnetic field around a
wire

Two
wires:

98
 A wire in a magnetic
field
• The force
applied in a
wire inside
a magnetic
field.

F  B  I L
sin
• B: magnetic flux density in Tesla
• I: current in A 115
• L: length of the conductor in m
 The polarity of a
coil when current
flows
• The right hand rule
shows the polarity of the
“magnet”.
• The magnetic field strength
(H) that produces a How much a
material allows 
magnetomotive force 
magnetic lines to
pass through?
 
l Magnetomotive force
(MMF):
NI: ampere-turns
- Measured in
AmpereTurns
l: the length of the coil
Measured in Ampere turns/meter
F   R N 116
 Reluctance and
•
Permeance
Permeance (Λ): the
quantity of flux for a
number of ampere-turns in
a magnetic circuit.
– Measured in Wb/AT
– The inverse of reluctance
(R).

 NI: ampere-
R
 turns 

 Φ: flux

Λ: permeance (Wembers /ampere
turn) 101
 Electric vs. Magnetic
circuit
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
EMF Volt MMF AmpereTurn (AT)
Current (I) Ampere (A) Magnetic flux (Φ) Weber (Wb)
Resistance (R) Ohm (Ω) Reluctance(R) AmpereTurns /Webers
(AT/Wb)
Conductance (C) Siemens (S) Permeance (Λ) Webers/AmpereTu
rns (Wb/AT)
EMF = I*R MMF = Φ*R = N*I

102
3.11 Inductance -
Inductor

120
 Inductance and self-
• inductance
Inductance is the characteristic
of an electrical circuit that
opposes the starting,
stopping, or a change in value
of current.
• The symbol of inductance is L
and it is measured in Henry
(H)
• Self-inductance: The induced
EMF in any circuit is always in
a direction to oppose the
effect that produced it.
– It creates a magnetic flux
that tries to oppose and
delay any change in current.
104
 Measuring
inductance • The larger the area,
the
higher the inductance.
• The larger the
length, the lower
the inductance.

Vin  L
d 
• Faster and higher changes in current, create higher
V .
ind
 t 105
 Energy in an
inductor
• The energy stored in
an inductor in Joule. 1
E store
d
2L I
2

106
 RL
circuit

Switch in Switch in
(1) (2)
Time constant in RL circuit: Current will reach
Time required for current to the maximum value L
reach 63% of the highest
value. τ: in seconds
in 5τ.

L: in Henries
R: in Ω
 R 107
 Mutual
•
inductance
Current flows
in one
inductor due
to the current
that flows in
the other
inductor.
• They are
linked by
mutual
inductance.

108
 Mutual
• Current
inductance • Large
mutual
flows in inductance.
one
inductor
due to the
current
changes • Small
in the mutual
inductance.
other
inductor. 109
 Measuring mutual
•
induction
Mutual induction
measured
is in
Henries (H) M  K L1
• K is a number
L2

110
Inductors in series and in
parallel

111
3.12 DC
motors

130
 DC
• Input: motion
generator
• Output:
Voltage

• Commutator: two
half- cylinders.
• The rotating part is
called armature
(usually drum-type
armature).
• The brushes are
usually made of 113
carbon.
 Using multiple
•
coils
Using multiple coils produces
a more DC-like output
voltage.

114
 Losses in a DC motor /
• generator
Copper Losses: Heat due to
armature internal resistance (I2R)
• Eddy current losses (iron losses):
Small currents in the armature due
to rotation in a magnetic field. They
oppose changes in flux.
– Lamination: the core is
manufactured so that the eddy
currents eliminate each other.
• Hysteresis losses: Heat losses due to
magnetic properties of the
armature (particles try to align
themselves with he magnetic field,
constantly).
115
 A practical DC
generator
N

S S

N
• Armature moves inside the
electromagnets and generates DC voltage.
• Electromagnets instead of permanent This is called commutation in a DC
magnets for creating excitation (i.e. generator.
magnetic field from current).
• They are often self-excited: The • Motor reaction: The current that flows
produced DC current from the through the conductors of the armature,
armature induce flux to the field create electromagnetic force that opposes
windings, which induce flux to its movement.
the armature and so on. • The higher the current, the higher
116
the motor force.
 Types of DC
generators

• We do we connect the
armature with the • Series-wound DC
field winding? – A field coil connected in series
generators:
• For excitation (i.e. to with the load.
– When load increases,
create magnetic field). voltage increases.
• These generators are – very poor voltage regulation.
called • Shunt-wound
• We self-excited generators.
could use external generators:
– A field coil connected in parallel
resources, but using the with the load.
output of the armature is – When load increases, output
easier. voltage decreases.
• We can connect them in • Compound-wound
– One field in series and one in
generators:
series or in parallel.
parallel. 135
–
 Three-wire
generators
• A coil inside
the
commutator.
• Act as
voltage
divider.

118
 Generator
rating
• Generators are characterized
by:
– The voltage output (voltage
rating)

119
 A simple DC
• Input: DC
current motor
• Output: Motion

120
 Types of DC
motors

• Series-wound DC motors:
– Field windings connected in series with the armature.
– Advantage: Due to the low inductive resistance of the field winding  high staring
torque (very responsive).
– Speed depends on the load.
– Used in aircrafts as engine starters, raising/lowering landing gear, flaps, etc.
• Shunt-wound motors:
– Field windings connected in parallel with the armature.
– Due high inductive resistance: slow start.
– Advantage: The speed does not vary with the load, useful when constant speed is
needed.
• Compound-wound motors:
– One field in series and one in parallel.
– Provides both high starting torque and constant speed, unaffected by the load.
– Rarely used in aircrafts. 121
 Back
• EMF
When the armature rotates, a magnetic field
is induced in its [Link] voltage is
called Back EMF (electromagnetic force) and
it is opposite to the applied voltage.
• The faster the rotation speed, the higher
the Back EMF.
• Due to Back EMF very high current is needed
to start a motor.
• In Shunt motors Back EMF affects the
armature, only. It is more difficult to stall a
series motor than a Shunt.
140
 Reversing motor
direction and motor
• speed
To reverse to motor’s rotating
direction, the current that flows
in either the windings or the
armature must be reversed.
• Increasing the current in the
windings the motor slows
down, because of the back-
EMF increases.
• Reducing the current,
increases the speed.
• The speed can be controlled by a
rheostat connected to control
the resistance of the windings.
• They are called split-field
motors.

123
 Energy loss in DC
motors
• Copper losses: resistance in the armature
and in the windings.
• Iron losses: Eddy current losses in
the armature (solution: lamination).
• Hysteresis losses
• Mechanical losses due to friction.

124
3.13 AC
Theory

125
 DC vs.
• AC
Direct vs. Alternating
current.

• AC is used in high-power electronics because it can be more

easily and efficiently be converted from higher to lower
voltages.
126
 AC
• A wave
waveform
cycle: 360o.

127
 Period and
frequency
1
frequency( f ) 
period
(T )

1
f 
T
• frequency is
measured in
Hertz (Hz).
• period is
measured in
seconds (T).
128
period and frequency
examples

129
 Pulse
• waveform
mark: is the time in
a period that the
pulse waveform is
HIGH.
• space: is the time in
a period that the
pulse waveform is
LOW.
• Mark space ratio and
duty cycle are
common ways to
describe the pulse
waveform. HIGH _ time
mark _ space _ ratio  LOW _ time

HIGH _ time
duty _ cycle  period 100%
130
 AC
• magnitude
Peak: the highest
point of the
waveform.
• Peak-to-peak the
distance from the
highest to the
lowest point.

150
 RMS and average
• value
Root Mean Square (RMS) value of an AC value (e.g. voltage or current)
is the equivalent DC value that gives the same effect:
– For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will shine with
the same brightness when connected to a 6V DC supply.
– VRMS = 0.707Vac or IRMS = 0.707Iac
• Average value for the AC is defined as the average of the absolute
values (otherwise, average would be zero).

132
AC
phase

133
multiple-phase power
systems

134
 Line and phase
voltage
• Line voltage is the voltage measured
between any two lines.
• Phase voltage is the voltage measured across
a single component in a three-phase source
or load.

135
 Y (star)
configuration
Vline  3 Vphase

Iline  I phase

136
 Δ (Delta)
configuration
Iline  3  I phase

Vline  Vphase

137
 Advantage of Δ vs. Υ is the
fault tolerance.
• When a
winding
fails:
• Δ:
– increased
current
runs in
the rest
of the
windings.
• Y:
– voltage
drops at
load
are 138
affected
3.14 RLC
circuits

139
 Capacitive and Inductive
• reactance
AC current can pass
though both the capacitor
and the inductor.
• Reactance shows the
opposition of the circuit
in current changes.
• The higher the frequency,
the lower the capacitive
and the higher the
inductive resistance.
• C in measured in Farad, L
in Henry and f in Hz.
• Xcand XLare measured in
Ω.

140
 Capacitor in AC
circuit
• Τhe capacitor
is being
charged and
discharged
constantly.
• Current is
ahead of
voltage by
90o.
160
 Inductor in an AC
circuit
• The inductor
resists AC
current,
because it
resists
changes in
current.
• Voltage is
ahead of
current by
90o. 142
 RLC
• Reactance (X) of circuit
an
circuit
RLC X  XL  XC
:– If X > 0: the circuit is
inductive.
– If X < 0: the circuit is
capacitive.
• Reactance is measured in
Ω.
• Impedance (Ζ) shows
opposition that a
circuit presents to a
current. 143
More about
impedance

144
Ohm’s law for AC and V
Power I Z
• True power measured in Watts:
It is consumed in the resistor,
Pt  I R
2

only.
• Reactive power, measured in PR  I 2

VAR consumed in capacitor and X

inductor: PA  I Z
2

• Apparent power, measured in VA:

• Power P R
PF  T
Factor: PA  Z
145
 Series RLC circuit
example

• Find the power

factor
146
 Parallel RCL
circuit

1
• Z in parallel RLC Z
2
circuits:  1    1  1 
2

• Find the power factor    X L c

R
147
 Series resonant
• circuit
Happens when X=X. c L
• Impedance is minimum (Z =
R).
• Current is maximum (I = V / 1
R) f0 
• – Q: quality factor
BW = f0 / Q . 2 LC
– BW: fhigh – flow.
– f0 resonance frequency.
– fhigh High band edge, flow: low band edge.

Preactive X
Q 
Ptrue
R
BW  fhigh
• 
fhigh and flow: f l
frequencies at which
o
the current reaches
0.707 of currentw at
resonance.

148
3.15
Transformers

149
 Transformer
• primary coil (or winding)
• secondary coil
• core the supports
the coils
• Magnetic flux flows
from one coil to
another through the
core.

• The core is often made

from laminated sheets of
iron or steel, to dissipate
heat and reduce losses. 150
 2 main types of
• cores
Core-type
• Shell type

• Like wound transformers:

primary and secondary in
phase.
• Unlike-wound transformers:
primary and secondary 180o out
of phase.

• Dots (same or
opposite side)
indicate the 151
 The excited
• No-load in
current

secondar
y:
– There is only a
small current in
the primary
that maintains
the magnetic
field. It is called
excited 152
 Coefficient of
coupling
• Ideally, all lines from the primary would go
to the secondary coil.
• Then, the coefficient of coupling would be
1.
• However, there are losses (leakage flux)
and the coefficient is less than 1.
• High permeability steel cores and close
space between the coils increases
coefficient of coupling.
153
Turns and voltage ratios – Turns
and current ratios

Curren
t:
Vs Ns I p
Vp  N p  I s
154
 Step-up and step-down
transformers
• With transformers we can multiply or divide voltage.
• Step-up transformers increase voltage from primary
to secondary.
• Step-down transformers reduce voltage from
primary to secondary.

155
 Power relationship between the
coils
Pp  Ps PL
• Ps: power of secondary
coil.
• Pp: power of primary coil.
• PL: power of load coil.

156
 Losses and
• efficiency
Copper losses, due • Back-EMF:
to resistance (I2R) – When AC is applied,
• Eddy-current loss, due back-EMF opposes
the flow of current in
to magnetic fields the primary.
between the coils.
Lamination reduces
Eddy-current losses. • Leakage flux:
• Hysteresis loss: The – Lines from the
magnetic flux that primary coil that do
passes through the not go into the
cores, magnetizes the secondary coil.
core.
• Efficiency (%100) = 100* Pout /
Pin
157
 Types of
transformers
• Power transformers:
– 0.95 coefficient coupling.
– Distinguished between high and low voltages.
– High-power may have multiple secondary windings
for various output voltages.
• Autotransformer:
– Variable voltage output.
• Audio and Radio-frequency transformers
– for audio and radio signals.
• Isolation transformers
– They do not allow DC noise signals to move from
one circuit to another.
• Three-phase transformers

180
3.16
Filters

159
 Filter
• s that filter out a specific
Circuits
range of frequencies.

160
 Low-pass
• filters
Low-pass filters: Allows
frequencies to pass and
low
filters high frequencies.
• Inductive and capacitive
low pass filters.
• When frequency increases
• XLincreases and voltage
at load drops.
• Xc decreases and
voltage at load drops.

1
f cutoff 
2R1
161
 High-pass
•
filters
High-pass filters: Allows high
frequencies to pass and filters
low frequencies.
• Inductive and capacitive high-
pass filters.
• When frequency drops
• XLdecreases and voltage at load
drops.
• Xc increases and voltage at
load drops.

1
f cutoff 
2Rload C 184
 Band-pass
filters
• Select a specific range of
frequencies.

163
 Band-stop
• The frequency
filter
of the
maximum
rejection is the
fnotch:

1
f notch 
4R3 3
C
164
 Resonant
• filters
Series RLC circuits give maximum impedance at
resonance, while parallel RLC give minimum impedance
at resonance.

165
3.17 AC generators
– 3.18 AC
motors

166
 AC
•
generators
Rotating armature AC generators:
– no commutation: produced voltage is driven directly to the
load.
• Stationary armature AC generators:
– Rotate the windings instead of the armature.

• Single phase and 3-phase generators with 2

poles.
• Both star and delta connections can be used,
but without neutral:
• Load unbalances can cause current to
flow from the load to the generator.

190
 Frequenc
y
• It depends of the speed of rotation and in
the number of poles.
– Faster speed  higher frequency.
– The more the poles, the higher the frequency.

NP • N: rotating speed
F  120 (RPM)
• P: number of poles
(e.g. 4 in the side
figure)
• F: measured in Hz 168
 Voltage
VFL regulation
VNL 100  percent _ of _
VFL regulation
• Voltage changes when the load
changes.
• VNL: voltage under no load
• VFL: voltage under full load
• The lower the regulation percentage,
the better the generator.
169
 AC
motors
• They are constructed
from the stator
(static part) and the
rotor (rotating part).
• Two main types:
– Synchronous motor
– Induction motor

170
Two phase magnetic
field • The more
the phases,
the
smoother
the rotation.
• Poles at
180o each
other.

171
 Three-phase magnetic
field o
• Poles at 120 each
other.

172
 Synchronous
motors
• Are used to drive
DC generators.
• The rotation is
synchronized with
the frequency of
the supplied
current.

173
 Induction
• motors
No DC supplied to rotor, induction is used.
• Therefore, the rotor rotates a bit slower,
than the supplied AC. This is called slip.
• Slip: the
difference
between the
synchronous
speed and the
actual speed of an
induction motor
is called slip. 174
 Types of induction
• motors
Shaded-pole motor:
– When low torque is required
(e.g. electric fans).
– A small single turn auxiliary
winding (shading coil), assists the
starting of the motor.
• Split-phase motor:
– When high torque is required (e.g. r
ai condition).
– A secondary small startup winding
is used to assist the starting of the
motor.
– Provide large starting torque.
– Capacitor start motor:
• Is a type of split-phase motor.
• Starting capacitor in series with the
startup winding. Creates an LC
circuit.

175