CABLES(HT&LT)

ENERGY ESTIMATION & AUDIT (15EE430)

[Link] Sekhar
Associate Professor
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
KLEF
Content Layout

 Introduction
 Classification of cables
 Necessary requirements to be fulfilled by cables
 Construction details
 Insulation requirements of cables
 Derivation of insulation resistance for a single core cable
 Energy Conservation opportunities in cables
 Case study on cables

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 This Introduces the Chapter !!!

Source Sink

Then !!!
Why do we require
Cables
???

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Classification of Cables
There are several ways of classifying cables. These includes classification of cables on the
basis of :

1. No. of Conductors in Cable

a. Single core cables
b. 3 core cables, 3 ½ core cables
2. Voltage Rating of Cable
a. Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V
b. High-tension (H.T. ) cables — upto 11,000 V
c. Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
d. Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
e. Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
3. Insulation Used in Cable ; a. PIC b. PVC c. PE d. PTFE e. XLPE
4. Power To Be handled in Cable
a. Power cables
b. Control cables

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Necessary requirement to be fulfilled by cables

 The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of

high conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and
carry more current.
 The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current
without overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
 The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of
safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
 The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may
withstand the rough use in laying it.
 The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is
complete chemical and physical stability throughout.

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Construction of a Cable

Cores or Conductors: A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending
upon the type of service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor cable shown
in the figure is used for 3-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or
aluminium and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.

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 Contd.,

Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the
thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly
used materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral
compound.

Metallic sheath: In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging
liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium
is provided over the insulation as shown in Figure.

Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous
material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath
against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.

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 Contd.,

Armouring: Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanised steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical
injury while laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring may not be done in the
case of some cables.

Serving: In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous

material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as
serving.

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Insulation requirements of a cable
High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.

High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.

High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.

Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to
decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case the
insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead
sheath.

Non-inflammable.

Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.

Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.

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Derivation of insulation resistance for a single core cable

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 What are the different
“Energy conservation opportunities”
in cables

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 Case Study On Cables !!!

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 Thank You For Your Attention !!!

Resources:
1. Electrical Engineering [Link]
2. Electrical Energy Efficiency-Copper Development Assosiation
3. Electrical [Link]
4. Electric Ship [Link] El-Shenawy

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 Presentation outline
 Need
Working Principle
Types of Transformers
Construction Features
Transformer Regulation
Transformer Losses
Condition for maximum efficiency in transformers
Energy conservation opportunities in transformers
Case study on transformers
Need ?
 Contd.,

• To optimize cost of bulk transmission of power from

generators to consumers
• Reduction in transmission loss
• To reduce or increase voltage in ac system
• Enables safe supply voltage to consumers
• Isolation of two systems for voltage regulation
 Definition of Transformer as per Standards
IEC 60076-1

A static piece of apparatus with two or more windings which, by electromagnetic

induction, transforms a system of alternating voltage and current into another system
of voltage and current usually of different values and at the same frequency for the
purpose of transmitting electrical power.

IEEE C57.12.80-2002

A static device consisting of a winding, or two or more coupled windings with or

without a magnetic core for introducing mutual coupling between electrical circuits.
 What is the working principle of a transformer?

“Mutual Induction”

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 18

In previous example, how the coils are linked to each
other???

[Link] linked
[Link] linked
[Link] linked
[Link] of these

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 Working principle
If a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary winding of turns,
a current will flow in it producing a magnetomotive force (MMF). Just
as an electromotive force (EMF) drives current around an electric
circuit, so MMF tries to drive magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit.
The primary MMF produces a varying magnetic flux in the core, and,
with an open circuit secondary winding, induces a back
electromotive force (EMF). In accordance with
Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced across the primary
winding is proportional to the rate of change of flux:  
 Contd.,

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
Ip/Is = Ns/Np
where
•Vp and Vs are the voltages across the primary winding and
secondary winding,
•Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and
secondary winding,
•dΦP / dt and dΦS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with
respect to time of the primary and secondary windings.
 How does a transformer work ??

*[Link]

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 What happens if a transformer is excited with
DC supply
???

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 Classifications

Transformers are adapted to numerous engineering applications and may be

classified in many ways:
 By power level:
(from fraction of a volt-ampere(VA) to over a thousand
MVA),
 By application:
(power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation),
 By frequency range:
(power, audio, radio frequency(RF))
 By voltage class:
(a few volts to about 765 kilovolts)

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 24

 Contd.,

 By cooling type:
(air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled (Natural/
Forced) etc.)
 By purpose:
(distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.).
 By ratio of the number of turns in the coils
Step-up The secondary has more turns than the primary.
Step-down The secondary has fewer turns than the primary.
 Connection :
Single phase, Star / star, Star delta etc
Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 25
 Construction :
 Contd.,

 Isolating
 Intended to transform from one voltage to the same voltage. The two coils
have approximately equal numbers of turns, although often there is a slight
difference in the number of turns, in order to compensate for losses
(otherwise the output voltage would be a little less than, rather than the
same as, the input voltage).
 Variable
 The primary and secondary have an adjustable number of turns which can
be selected without reconnecting the transformer.

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What is the difference between a Distribution transformer and
a Power Transformer
???

Distribution Transformer Power Transformer

 What is inside a transformer ???

*[Link]
Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 28
 Basic Components of a Transformer

Current conductors (Primary & Secondary Windings)

Magnetic Flux conductor(Laminated Steel Core)
Insulation
Cooling
Protection
Supporting Accessories

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 29

 Core - Components - Types
 In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of sheet steel lamination to provide
continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air gap. The steel used should have high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities. The eddy
currents loss is minimized by laminating the core with the laminations being insulating
from each other by a high coat of core plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface.
The thickness of laminations vary from 0.30 mm to 0.5mm

Core Components:

-The “conductor” for the flux

-The skeleton for mechanical rigidity of the active part
-The core, an unbroken path for magnetic flux

CRGO or Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel is available in various grades

(generally called M3, M4, M5 & M6).
Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 30
 Contd.,
 The transformers are of two general types distinguished from each other by
the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the
laminated steel core. They are

[Link] type

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 Contd.,

[Link] type

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 Contd.,

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 Transformer Insulation

 Minor insulation Like inter turn insulation, is achieved using cellulogic paper.

 Major insulation Between primary and secondary, phase to phase and inner
coil to core. This is achieved by Bakelite, wooden blocks, cellulogic paper
cylinders.

 Transformer Oil: derivative or petroleum crude. This has good dielectric

strength.

 It is serves as a good cooling medium and absorbs heat from the windings in
transformer.

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 34

 Transformer Accessories & Auxiliaries
 Tap Changer(s)-(On load/Off load)
 Tank
 Radiators
 cooling fans, oil pumps, oil to water heat exchangers (Cooling
ONAN / ONAF/ OFAF/ OFWF external coolers)
 Bushings
 Buchholz Relay/Oil Surge Relay
 Temperature Indicators
 Oil Level Indicators
 Pressure Relief Device
 Marshalling Box/Control cubicle
 Oil Preservation Systems: Conservators (gas sealed,
Bellows/membrane sealed) Breathers
Thermo siphon Filters

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Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 36
 Radiators

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 Buchholz Relay

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 Conservator

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 Breather

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 Manufacturing Process of a transformer !!!

*ABB power transformer manufacturing process

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 Transformer Losses
1. Load loss (or copper loss)
2. No load loss (or iron loss)
3. Iron Losses are majorly divided into
a. Hysteresis Loss
b. Eddy Current Loss

 The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level can then be
calculated from:

  PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load)2 x PLOAD

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 Copper Loss

These represent the main component of the load dependent or the

variable losses, designated as I2R or copper losses. They vary as
square of the r.m.s current in the windings and directly with D.C.
resistance of winding. The resistance in turn varies with the
resistivity, the conductor dimensions; and the temperature.

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 Hysteresis Loss
Hysteresis losses originate from the molecular magnetic domains
in the core laminations, resisting being magnetized and
demagnetized by the alternating magnetic field.

Because various types of core materials have different magnetizing

abilities, the selection of core material is an important factor in
reducing core losses. Hysteresis is a part of core loss.

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 44

 Eddy Current Loss

The alternating flux induces an EMF in the bulk of the core

proportional to flux density and frequency. The resulting circulating
current depends inversely upon the resistivity of the material and
directly upon the thickness of the core. The losses per unit mass of
core material, thus vary with square of the flux density, frequency
and thickness of the core laminations.

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 Transformer Loss Vs Load

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 What are the performance
parameters of a
Transformer
???

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 47

 Efficiency
Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and transformers):

P out
   100 %
P in
P out
   100 %
P out  P loss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:

V S I S cos 
  x 100 %
PCu  Pcore  V S I S cos 

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 48

 Transformer Voltage Regulation

Loading changes the output voltage of a transformer.

Transformer regulation is the measure of such a deviation.

Definition of % Regulation

| V no  load |  | V load |
 * 100
| V load |

V no-load =RMS voltage across the load terminals without load

V load = RMS voltage across the load terminals with a specified load

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 Condition for Maximum Efficiency

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 Energy Conservation Opportunities

2
Loss Application Stage:
Minimization Selection of ratings & number of transformers
Energy saved by under utilization of transformers
Improvements of power factor
Segregation of non-linear loads
Effect of operating temperature
1
Design Stage:
 Using better core material(CRGO& Amorphous metal)
 Using of more Material
 New Material
 Improved distribution of materials
 Improvements in cooling medium and methods(Choice of liquid filled)
Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 52
 Oil Type Vs Dry type transformer

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 53

 Case Study on Transformers !!!!

Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 54

 Thank You for your attention !!!

Resources:
[Link] Machinery-Fitzgerald, kingsley, Umens-Macgrawhill Edition.
2. Energy Saving In Industrial Distribution Transformers- May 2002 Authors: W.T.J.
Hulshorst, J.F. Groeman- Kema-Netherlands.
3. J & P Transformer Book, Twelfth Edition 1998, Martin J. Heathcote.
[Link] practice manual-Trnasformers-Devki Energy Consultancy [Link].
Sunday, May 24, 2020 Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE 55
 Edited with the trial version of
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To remove this notice, visit:
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Case study
On Averting Distribution Transforme Failure

Clasification of Failure Major

1. Insulation Failure
Minor
2. Damage to HT Coil 1. Oil Sample not Satisfactory
3. Damageto LLLT Coooil [Link] connections cut of
3. Wornn-out Bushing rods
4. Broken Bushings
4. Damage to Core & 5. Gasket Leakage
Laminations 6. Welding Leakage
[Link] thro’ Valves
5. Failure of Tap Switch & Tap
arangement 8. Broken guage glass
9. Broken vent diaphragm
 Page-2

Care to be Exercised to Avoid Failure

In Manufacturing Stage During Transport In Working Conditions

1. Proper insulation arrangement. 1. Safe handling during 1. Maintenance of oil level.

2. Mechanical rigidity to transport and erection. 2. Maintenance of Breather
withstand heavy forces. 2. Adoption of standards for with silicagel & oil seal.
3. Adequate cooling arrangement. erection of transformer
3. Periodical testing of IR Values.
4. Adequate quantity of oil for structure.
4. Periodical tests in transformer.
insulation & cooling.
5. Earth resistance values and Earth
5. Maintaining atmospheric pressure
maintenance.
inside with pure air.
 Page-3
In Manufacturing Stage During Transport In Working Conditions

6. Rigid fixing of core coil 3. Utilizing standard methods of lifting 6. Keeping standard voltage & current at load
unit inside main tank. of Transformers i.e crains, chain terminals.
pulley instead of 7. Maintaining LAS to prevent damage
7. Pucca earthing of core & handling by pulling through due to surges.
bushings. 8. Maintaining LT System
other metallic
parts. 9. Keeping the loading within the limits.
10. Standard Construction of LT lines.
 Page-4

Examination of failed Distribution Transformers

External Check up Internal Physical Healthiness Test
Verification
1. Oil level and Quantity available. 1. Conditions of HT coils in all the 1. By injecting 15V on LV
2. Places of oil leakage three phases. side & measuring
3. Condition of Breather & silicagel. 2. Checkup of lead connection voltage of HT coil.
stack
4. Condition of Bushing & Bushing rods. from coil (Delta & Star points)

5. Condition of Vent Diaphragm. 3. Condition of core.

4. Condition of Tap switch and
connections.
 Page-5

External Check up Internal Physical Verification Healthiness Test

6. Condition of Valves. 5. Condition of Core earthing. 2. Short circuit test by injecting 400V
7. IR Value & continuity. 6. Presence of sludge & moisture in oil on HV side & short
8. BDV Test on oil. & physical condition of oil. circuiting the LV side.
 Page-6

Case Studies on Averting Distribution Transformer

Failure
Details of Defects Observation at Lab Probable Cause for the Rectification done and
Noticed at Field Defects suggestions to avoid
recurrence in future

Case 1: Case 1: Case 1:

Case 1:
HT Leads insulation Conservator oil level below Insulation Sleeves changed.
All 3 HT Fuses blows out near top of bushing rod. Absence of oil around Higher oil level was asked to be maintained.
slowly after 1 Hour
bushing found caused heating of
(Examined at Field) charred leads.
Case 2: Case 2:
Case 2: Coil rewound and sent. The previous failure
Case 2: Lightning surges entered and caused
Oil spurt out (Similar happening shattering. (Area prone to lightning) was also in same “B” Phase. Asked to
B Phase end windings
on previous transformers also) examine HT LAS of “B” Phase. All three LAS
(Top and Bottom found
shattered) Changed and no such failure
thereafter.
Case 3: Case 3:
Case 3: Case 3: Connection loosened due to improper Connections tightened and sent for use.
Undue heating in LT Rod. “R” Ph. “R” Phase rod inside handling of bushing during jumper Advised to use checknuts and proper handling.
Rod worn out and insulation tape connection loosened. connections.
charred.
 Page-7
Details of Defects Observation at Lab Probable Cause for Rectification done and
Noticed at Field the Defects suggestions to avoid
recurrence in future
Case 4: Case 4: Case 4: Case 4:
L.T. Voltage Measured- OK. Neutral Bushing Improper handling of neutral Neutral connection set right and
But found drop in voltage Connection loosened bushing during meggering. sent for use. Advised to handle
when load is
connected. inside. bushing
[Link]
Case 5: Case 5: Case 5: Case 5:
LT Voltage- OK. But load in LT & HT connection found Examined the soldered Defective Connections resoldered
“R” Phase could not be alright. No visual defect SC test connections in “R” Phase and and found OK. Improper soldering
loaded. revealed no current in R found “R” Phase bottom delta gave way during use.
Phase, full current in neutral. connection improper. (not
completely cut)

Case 6: Case 6: Case 6: Case 6:

HT Fuse in all 3 Phases Inter turn short in R Suspected heavy absorption All good stacks removed. Core with
blown out. of moisture. Oil sample not LT coil placed in Hot
Phase- 3rd Stack satisfactory. Crackle test Air Chamber and dried. Failed coils
Y Phase – 4th Stack proved positive. replaced. Put into use after
B Phase- 2nd & 3rd Stack circulation and test.
 Page-8

Details of Defects Noticed at Field Observation at Lab Probable Cause for the Rectification done and
Defects suggestions to avoid
recurrence in future
Case 7: Case 7: Case 7: Case 7:
HT Fuse frequently blows out in “B” Phase. Insulation of lead inside “B” Phase Insulation of lead inside “B” Advised the field to release Air monthly.
bushing found charred. All coils in Phase Bushing found charred. Charred insulation replaced and sent for
condition.
Good
All coils in Good use.

condition.
Case 8: Case 8: Case 8: Case 8:
Informed that Examined at spot and observed Examined at spot and Air trapped under the bottom portion and
(a) No oil could be taken from sampling that the “Field Report is correct.” observed that the “Field pushed the oil up. Advised to release air
valve- oil not flowing out. Report is Correct.” frequently through air plug and also
through top lid
(b) Oil level in conservator is full
(attended at field).

Case 9: Case 9: Case 9: Case 9:

HT in “R” Phase blown out. (Similar “R” Phase HT Coils failed Due to Heavy Short LT “R” Phase conductor
failure in 5 months) with symmetry giving way. LT “R” Circuit forces because of frequently touched nearby neutral. Fuse
Phase also failed. intermittent feeding of fault not blown. Earth value high- 30 Ohms.
current. Asked
to rectify earthing system and
adopt proper LT fuse.
 Page-9
Details of Defects Observation at Lab Probable Cause for Rectification done and
Noticed at Field the suggestions to avoid
Defects recurrence in future

Case 10: Case 10:

Case 10: Case 10:
HT fuse blowing out on Gauge Glass cleaned. Block in
Oil level found upto core Gauge Glass indication
load. (attended at site) air hole removed.
level only. Gauge glass misleading. Actually oil level
showing OK level. HT Lead is low. Insulation of leads
insulation charred due to strengthened. Transformer
heat. Coil alright. put back in
service OK.
Case 11: Case 11: Case 11: Case 11:
HT Fuse blown out LT IR All LT leads removed. Now LT “Zero” I.R. value is on LT leads The LT lines and cables was
Value Zero. Megger value is 30 M Ohms. & not in transformer. asked to be inspected and
defects rectified.
Case 12: Case 12: Case 12: Case 12:
HT Fuse is blown out. Core & channel short circuited with Core not kept earthed (not Advised the field to revamp
“C” Phase coil top stack and leads. provided after repairs). Stray earthing system. Transformer
Earthing of core not found.. Voltage caused short circuit. condemned since laminations
got charred.
 Page-10

Details of Defects Observation at Lab Probable Cause for Rectification done and
Noticed at Field the suggestions to avoid
Defects recurrence in future

Case 13:
Case 13: Case 13: Case 13:
Transformer changed for two
times due to unequal No fault in the two Advised to inspect the line for Reported that one phase
voltage. transformers brought to any jumper cut. line cut on load side with
Lab. incoming three phase
intact in pin insulator (Location
in the midst of a lake full of
water.)
Case 14: Case 14: Case 14: Case 14:
Removed as unequal Delta connection cut in May be due to ageing and Continuity test is OK since it is
voltage. IR value and bottom of “B” Phase. wear & tear. connected in Delta.
continuity OK. Soldered and sent for use.
Case 15: Case 15: Case 15: Case 15:
HT Fuse blown out. IR value and “B” Phase coil inter-turn Insulation failure due to Failed stack replaced and
continuity OK. short in 2nd stack. No ageing. Since no earth sent for use. Flexibility of
shattering of coils/ contact of winding, IR values connection increased and
are OK. soldered with rod.
contacting with Earth.
 Page-11
Details of Defects Observation at Lab Probable Cause Rectification done and
Noticed at Field for the Defects suggestions to avoid
recurrence in future

Case 16:
Case 16: Case 16: Case 16:
Unequal voltage.
Continuity not found with HT lead in “B” bushing rod, come The lead was tight. Flexibility of connection
the “B” Phase HT. out. Hence came out from increased and soldered with
Rod. Rod.
Case 17: Case 17: Case 17: Case 17:
Oil Sample not satisfactory for 3 Found heavy sludges & moisture Sludging due to ageing, Oil completely discharged. Core
consecutive tests. absorption IR value low. Found vent water entry through vent pipe and coil cleaned.
pipe diaphragm broken. & gauge glass. Dried in chamber. Put
Gauge glass broken. Breather all right. hot oil circulation with new
oil and tested OK.
Case 18: Case 18: Case 18:
Frequent failure of certain Causal examination revealed low Case 18: Taken up with company by
make transformer. quantity of oil than that at name plate- Non availability of sufficient Purchase wing.
260 Ltrs. Available 30 Ltrs. oil-very small spacing (Ineffective cooling
between tank & core and top system)
cover, leads to failure.
 Problems and their Possible Solutions Related to the Distribution
Transformers Page-12

Distribution Transformer-
Distribution transformers of different ratings are being used in the cities and they are being loaded
indiscriminately. Absence of Proper and adequate protection on the HT and LT sides of these transformers, improper cable connections
on the LT side and improper earthing are the main sources of the trouble.

It is suggested that:-

1. Two or three standard sizes of transformers should be selected and used, e.g.400, 250, and 100 KVA in general. Individual connections
of Jal Nigam and others may, however, require use of smaller capacities.

2. Normal loading on these transformers should not be allowed to exceed 60% of their rating and fresh transformers should be added
expeditiously when the loading exceeds the above limit.

3. The protection to be provided on the transformers should be standardized.

4. The size of the LT cables and number of cables to be used should be standardized. It is suggested that 400
mm2 single core should be used for the incoming cables and 240 mm2 LT cables should be used for the outgoing connections. Two
cables should be used for the 400 KVA transformers and one cable for the 250
KVA transformers in each phase. The LT studs of transformers of 400 KVA ratings should, therefore, have studs of bigger length to
accommodate two cables.
 Page-13
5. It will be advisable to provide a set of false LT bushings and studs for the connections of cables so that the
main studs/bushings are not subjected to frequent stresses due to damages of LT cables/lugs. Protection may be provided between
these two sets of bushings.
6. The earthing connection of the transformers should be checked atleast once a year and corrected, if necessary.

7. The oil level, its dielectric strength and loading of the transformer should be checked atleast twice a year and while replacing a
transformer it should invariably be checked by Engineer.

LT Distribution System-
The LT distribution system is the most important one from the point of view of consumers and the Losses. But the tragedy is that this is
most neglected one. The network grows haphazardly and with out taking into account the future growth. It is suggested that:-

1. The size of conductors should be prescribed for the LT mains. For this purpose ACSR Dog may be prescribed for the
mains, Raccoon for the branches and Rabbit for the minor branches.
2. Properly graded fuses should be provided on the tee-off points.
3. The LT circuits should be taken out through properly rated fuse units connected to the busbars on the LT side
of the transformers/LT ACBs as the case may be.
 Page-14

4. Each circuit should be loaded to a limit of 50% under normal operation conditions and if the loading exceeds 60% the mains should be
strengthened before the loading reaches 75%.
5. The mains in the lanes, where the horizontal clearance is the main problem, which are overloaded or have decayed over the years of
use should be renovated by using insulated conductors of capacity which is double of the present loading.
6. A number of LT faults are created due to trees branches touching the conductor. Regular lopping and chopping of tree branches shall
definitely avoid LT faults and thereby reducing heavy currents in LT circuit.

Service Connections-
The cable size for the connections have already been prescribed for light & fan and small & medium power
connections and these are to be followed. In case of large and heavy power connections, however, the cable sizes have to be properly
selected taking into account the various derating factors. Use of lugs/clamps and sealing the connections at the tapping points will help in
reducing the jumper faults and oxidation. Aerial fuses have gradually vanished from the scene and they are to be revived.

The general tendency while selecting the size of the cables is to take into account only the normal loading conditions. The fault current
rating or the Short-time rating should also be taken into account, specially in case of the HT connections.
 Page-15

Storage & Handling of insulating oils-

Generally oil is received in 210 Ltrs. Capacity M.S. Steel barrels.

Following care should be exercised in storage and handling of barrels-

1. Rough handling of drums should be avoided.

2. Drums should not be kept in open but should be stored under cover.

3. Drums should not be kept in vertical position with its plug on the top.

4. It should be placed in horizontal position in such a way that there is a head of oil on the stopper or plug to prevent the entry of
water or moisture.

5. Oil from drums should always be treated before use.

6. Vessel or drum for handling of oil should always be clean, free from dust, dirt contaminants or moisture.
Flexible pipe and hand pumps used for taking out and filling oil should also be clean, their end be covered properly so as to
avoid being contaminated.
 Appearance (Few Thumb Rules to be applied to know the health of T/f
oil)-
Page-16

which
1. Colour:- The colour of oilcan bewith
darkens confirmed by colour
the age. Very dark crackle test. excessive
may suggest If cloudiness
oxidation. is present
when oil sample is warm and oil does not become clear even after
heating, it is an indication of contamination. A
2. Clarity:-  greenish
Cloudiness if ittinge
appearswill
whileindicate
cooling of oilpresence of copper
sample, is indication slats
of presence which usually occurs
of moisture
during advance stage of deterioration of oil.
[Link]- (1) Gassy smell suggests the crecking of oil.
(2) A Strong acid smell suggests the presence of excessive amount of volatile acids due to
deterioration of oil.
(3) A pungent acetylene like smell which is common in oil samples drawn from switchgear, if
present in oil sample drawn from a transformer

 indicates gas formation due to arcing or hot spots etc.

Final conclusions have to be drawn only after the others tests are made and not
merely on the basis of above observations.
 Page-17

Electric Strength (Breakdown Voltage) Test:-

When a new oil is filled the minimum breakdown voltage should be 40 KV for one minute with2.5 mm gap. This value falls
during service when the oil is contaminated due to dust, water, other extraneous matters or dissolved gases etc. During service the
breakdown voltage should not fall below 30 KV for one minute for 2.5mm gap of electrodes. If the values goes down, oil should be filtered
to removed the contaminants.

For power transformers the minimum breakdown voltage during service may be kept above 40 KV.
 Page-18
HOW TO
MINIMIZ THE DAMAGED RATE OF TRANSFORMER
E
A lot of things are thought to be done but the outcome is not as desired by you because of- 1- Lack of Knowledge
2- Lack of Will 3- Lack of
time
4- Lack of Money

First two components i.e. lack of knowledge and lack of will are in our hands and can be improved. The remaining two things
are directly proportional i.e. time is money. You have lot of time to do work, you have a lot of money to earn.

Spend some time to save a transformer and thus save time to replace a transformer. Utilize the time saved for revenue
realization and increase the revenue. Plan properly. Invest in system improvement.

Repeat the cycle and you will be successful.