AVD Course Learning
Outcomes
AVD Course Learning Outcomes
• By end of AVD course students will understand
aircraft design process and phases
• By end of this course students will be able to
conceptually design an aircraft from a given set
of requirements and mission profile.
• By end of this course the students will be able to
analyze and optimize a given aircraft design.
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Design Process
(To be followed in this course)
DESIGN PROCESS YOU WILL FOLLOW
Tech:
Yesterday: heavy,
cheep, under
perform
Today
Future: light,
expensive,
exceed
performance
Your case Ref
aircraft in
combination
with concept
sketch if you
want to make
one
Aircraft Sizing
Learning Outcomes
• By end of this section students will understand what is
– aircraft sizing
– a mission profile
• By end of this section students will be able to estimate
– SFC
– Lift to drag ratio
– Mission Fuel fraction
– Aircraft empty weight fraction
• By end of this section students will be able to calculate
– Aircraft Gross takeoff weight using approximate
analysis with 70-80 % accuracy
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Sizing
Most important design calculation
It determines the weight and size depending
upon mission profile
It is a backward process:
• We know how for it goes and then we calculate
the size.
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Mission Profile
Typical Mission Profile are:
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05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 12
General aviation (GA)
• General aviation (GA) is all civil
aviation operations other than scheduled air
services and non-scheduled air
transport operations for remuneration or
hire. General aviation flights range from gliders
and powered parachute to rotorcraft and
corporate business jets The majority of the world's
air traffic falls into this category, and most of the
world's airports serve general aviation exclusively.
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 13
Sizing
Many levels of a/c sizing procedure:
• Simplest is to adopt Past history
Right answer takes much more e.g.
• Time may be several years
• People
• Money
• No of design are done to select one that is accepted
• Right Answer is one which has Minimum
Weight and performs the Required
Mission.
• Multirole capabilities: An interceptor which can perform
bombing role also
05/11/2020 14
Sizing
Starting Point
• Sketch (Based on requirements) OR
• Reference Aircraft (Your case) close to your
requirements
Chapter 3 Introduces a Simplified Weight
Estimation Method.
Detailed weight calculation will follow
05/11/2020 15
Gross Takeoff Weight (W0) Buildup
• Wcrew & Wpayload are given design requirements
• Fuel weight (Wf) and Empty weights (We) are
unknown & depend upon a/c total weight and
mission profile
05/11/2020 16
Takeoff Weight (W0) Buildup
Equation 3.1 can be written in terms of
fractions
Can be rearranged
Wcrew & Wpayload are given design requirements
Thus if we know
• Empty weight fraction We / Wo
• And Fuel weight fraction Wf / Wo
05/11/2020 17
then Wo can be determined
Initial Sizing Summary
05/11/2020 18
Empty Weight Estimation
Range (We / Wo) = 0.3 – 0.8 ( from historical Data fig 3.1 )
From the drawing /Sketch estimate and add weights of
individual components of the a/c ( to be discussed later)
You will find empty weight fraction Using weight given in
requirements and historical trends Fig 3.1
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Explanation of figures in Text Book
• What this figure signifies
• Its actually data of thousands of aircraft plotted
• Then Polynomial equations( next slide) are fitted to the plotted data
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 21
Empty Weight Estimation
• We / Wo = AWoc Kvs
• A&C are constants
• Kvs is a Constant for variable sweep
= 1.04 if variable sweep
= 1.00 if fixed sweep
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Empty Weight Estimation
• Thus equation We / Wo = AWoc Kvs
• Will give you a fraction for your a/c
• Or empty weight in terms of gross take off weight
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Fuel Fraction Estimation
Fuel of the a/c includes :
• Fuel consumed in mission
• Reserved fuel (dictated by Civil and Military
specs)
• Trapped Fuel
• Trapped + Reserve = 6%
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Mission Profile
Typical Mission Profile are:
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Mission Segment Weight Fraction
For initial simple analysis of chapter three combat
weight drop and aerial refueling segments will not
be considered
Following Mission Segments will be considered
For fighter consider ferry range
Alternate runway landing fuel compensated in
trapped + reserved fuel which is 6 %
05/11/2020 26
Mission Segment Weight Fraction
For Analysis Various Mission Segments or legs are
numbered as follows:
In each segment fuel is burnt thus weight is reduced
by certain fraction
Mission segment weight fraction
= A/c weight at the end of segment
A/c weight at the start of this segment
e.g Cruise Weight Fraction = W3
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Mission Segment Weight Fraction
For any segment ‘ i,’ we have segment weight fraction = W i
Wi – 1
If there are total of X segments then find ratio of weight of the a/c at
the end of mission e.g.
If X = 5
then W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W5
X X X X =
W0 W1 W2 W3 W4 W0
Using this relation we can find Fuel Consumed (W f = W0 - Wx )
Wf Wx
= (1 - ) here x=5
W0 W0
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Mission Segment Weight Fraction
Assuming trapped and Reserve Fuel to be about 6 %
Thus knowing overall mission weight fraction Wx / W0
we can find Wf / W0
So we need to find each segment weight fraction and then the over all
mission weight fraction to find the fuel fraction
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Mission Segment Weight Fraction
How to Find Segment Wise Fuel Fraction
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Mission Segment Weight Fraction
Cruise Segment: Use Brequet range Equation
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Aircraft Range
Aircraft Performance and Design
Chapter 5 Part J
32
Range
Distance along the ground covered in
one load of fuel is the range ®
Consider the following terminologies
W0 --gross weight of the airplane
W f --weight of the fuel
W1 --weight of the airplane with no fuel
33
Range
At any instant during the flight, the weight of
the airplane (W) is
W W1 W f {5.142}
Indeed the time rate of change of weight is
dW dW f .
0 W f {5.143}
dt dt
Both dW/dt and dWf/dt are negative
numbers
34
Range
Range is intimately connected with
engine performance through the SFC
SFC for PD/reciprocating engine
.
Wf [5.144]
c
P
SFC for JPA .
Wf [5.145]
ct
T
SFC combined
cV
ct [3.43]
pr
35
Range
Consider steady level flight
Assuming stationary atmosphere
A general range relation can be found:
ds
V
dt
ds V dt [5.146]
A modified equation 5.145 could be
dW f / dt
ct
T
[5.147]
dW f
dt
36 ctT
Range
Substitute equation 5.147 in 5.146
V [5.148]
ds dW f
ctT
From equation 5.142,
dW f dW
Equation 5.148 becomes
V V W dW [5.149]
ds dW
ctT ct T W
37
Range
In steady, level flight L=W, T=D, hence
equation 5.149 becomes
V L dW
ds [5.150]
ct D W
Now the range of the airplane is
obtained by integrating 5.150
R W1
V L dW
R ds [5.151]
0
c D W
W0 t
38
Range
The restrictions are steady level flight and
no wind
Clearly range depends on L/D, SFC,
velocity and initial amount of fuel
But these parameters are not independent
of each other
For a given flight if the variations of these
parameters are known throughout the flight;
the equation can be numerically integrated
to exactly calculate the range
39
Range
For preliminary analysis, we assume flight
at constant velocity, c, and L/D. Then
W
V L 1 dW
ct D W0 W
R [5.151]
Or
V L W0
R ln [5.152]
ct D W1
This equation is called the Breguet range
equation
40
Range
L/D is a function of velocity in this
case
To obtain maximum range, we need to
fly at a condition where the product of
velocity and L/D is maximum
This condition is different for PDA’s
and JPA’s
41
Maximum Range for JPA
Range equation for JPA is already
given by equation 5.152 in the form of
thrust specific fuel consumption
V L W0
R ln [5.152]
ct D W1
Here maximum range is dictated by
the product of velocity and L/D. Let us
examine the product
42
Maximum Range for JPA
The product is
L 2W C L 2W C L1/ 2 [5.154]
V
D SC L C D S CD
Thus the product is maximum when 1/ 2
the aircraft is flying at maximum CC L
D
To get a more explicit expression let
us put equation 5.154 into 5.151
W
V L 1 dW
ct D W0 W
R [5.151]
43
Maximum Range for JPA
We get
W0
1 2W C 1L/ 2 dW [5.155]
R
c
W1 t
S CD W
C L1/ 2
Assuming c t , , and constant, equation 5.155 can be written as
CD
1 / 2 W0
[5.151]
1 2 C dW
R
ct S CD
L
W W 1/ 2 or
1
R
2
ct S CD
2 C L1/ 2 1/ 2
W0 W11/ 2 [5.156]
44
Maximum Range for JPA
R
2
ct S CD
W0 W11/ 2
2 C L1/ 2 1/ 2
Equation 5.156 is a simplified range
equation for a jet-propelled airplane.
From this equation we see that for
maximum range C L1/ 2 / C D
Fly at maximum
Have the lowest possible thrust SFC
Fly at high altitude i.e. low density
Carry a lot of fuel
45
Maximum Range for JPA
What happens when density goes to
zero? Obviously from the equation
range goes to infinity
But is that possible? Isn't your altitude
limited by absolute ceiling?
So the deciding factor is C / C
1/ 2
L D
Therefore maximum range for JPA is
obtained at a flight velocity for max C / C
1/ 2
L D
46
Maximum Range for JPA
Which means
C D ,0 3KCL2
1/ 2
2 3K W
V C1 / 2 / C max
L D C D , 0 S
1/ 4
C 1/ 2
3 1
L
3
CD 4 3KCD , 0
47
NEXT 4 SLIDES ARE OPTIONAL
48
Maximum Range for
PD/reciprocating engine
Range equation should be expressed
in terms of power that means using ‘c’
as SFC
.
cV
Wf [5.144] ct [3.43]
c pr
P
V L W0
R ln [5.152]
ct D W1
Use equation 3.43 into equation 5.152
49
Maximum Range for
PD/reciprocating engine
We get
V L W0 pr L W
R ln V ln 0
ct D W1 cV D W1
pr L W0
R ln [5.153]
c D W1
This is the historical Breguet range
equation, and it dates back to before
1920
50
Maximum Range for
PD/reciprocating engine
There is no velocity free stream in the
equation, L/D is the deciding factor
Therefore for maximum range:
Fly at max L/D
Have highest possible propeller
efficiency
Have lowest possible SFC
Carry a lot of fuel
51
Maximum Range for
PD/reciprocating engine
Therefore theoretical maximum range
is obtained by flying at velocity at
which L/D is maximum, that is
C D , 0 KCL2
1/ 2
2 K W
V L / D max
C D , 0 S
L 1
D max 4C D , 0 K
52
EXAMPLE 5.19
53 Chapter 5 - PART A 05/11/2020
EXAMPLE 5.19
54 Chapter 5 - PART A 05/11/2020
Loiter / Endurance
Loiter Segment
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Aircraft Endurance
Aircraft Performance and Design
Chapter 5 Part K
56
Aircraft Endurance
• What is meant by long endurance?
57
Aircraft Endurance
• From equation 5.145
dW f
ctT
dt
or
dW f
dt [5.164]
ctT
• Since T=D, L=W in steady level flight
dW f L 1 dW f
dt
ct D D ct W
[5.165]
58
Aircraft Endurance
• Integrating, we get a general equation for
endurance
W1 W0
1 L dW f 1 L dW f [5.166]
E
c D W
W0 t
c D W
W1 t
• If the detailed variations of SFC, L/D, and W are
known throughout the flight, equation 5.166 can be
numerically integrated to obtain an exact result for
the endurance
• For preliminary flight performance
W
1 L 0 dW f
ct D W1 W
E
or
[5.167]
1 L W0
E ln
ct D W1
59
Aircraft Endurance for JPA’s
• Equation 5.167 is already expressed in terms of
thrust SPC, and it gives endurance for JPA
directly
1 L W0 [5.167]
E ln
ct D W1
• But c
ct ct ) SL ( T
1
) 2
TSL
Where T is temperature
• For Maximum endurance for a JPA
Fly at maximum L/D
Have the lowest possible thrust SFC
Carry a lot of fuel
60
Aircraft Endurance for PDA’s
• We know that
cV
ct [3.43]
pr
• Substituting in integral equation 5.166, we have
pr C L dW f
W0
E
cV C D W
• Using value of velocity, we have
W1
W0
pr SC L C L dW f
E
W1
c 2W C D W
or
W0
pr S C L3 / 2 dW f
E [5.168]
W1
c 2W C D W 3 / 2
61
Aircraft Endurance for PDA’s
• By making the assumption of constants, we
have
pr
E
c
2 S
CD
W1 W01/ 2
C L3 / 2 1/ 2 [5.169]
• Maximum endurance for a PDA corresponds to
Fly at maximum C 3/ 2
L
C D
Have the lowest possible SFC
Carry a lot of fuel
Fly at sea level where density is the largest value
62
Summary
63
EXAMPLE 5.20
05/11/2020 Chapter 5 - PART A 64
Unknowns for Range and Loiter
• In range and endurance equations to estimate weight
fractions for the segment, Range and endurance are given
in requirements
• Unknowns are:
– SFC
– L/D ratio
– Velocity: Cruise velocity or mach no is given. If mach no
is given find velocity at the given (cruise) altitude
V=M x a ( a is speed of sound at that altitude)
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How to estimate SFC/ TSFC and L/D ratio
• SFC & L/D are not constant
C => f (speed, altitude, throttle setting)
L/D => f (speed, altitude, weight)
For the time being this variation is not considered. We will use
historical data
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Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) and (TSFC)
We use SFC in range and loiter equations
Typical Value for cruise and loiter
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Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) and (TSFC)
SFC Trends for various type of engines
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Mach No and Type of Engine Selection
05/11/2020 69
L / D Estimation
Range and loiter equations require L/D
In level flight
L=W = Constant
Thus L/D is dependant upon drag
In subsonic flight L/D depends upon
• Wing span (aspect ration) (Induced drag)
• Wetted Area (Skin Fraction Drag)
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Does simple Aspect Ratio Predict Drag
(b*b/Swet)
05/11/2020 71
• Both aircraft have similar wing span
• Aspect ratio for Avro is very low but lift to drag
rations are similar
• Thus simple aspect ratio (b*b/Sref) is not a good
measure of drag
• Wetted aspect ratio for two ac are similar
• Thus wetted aspect ratio (b*b/Swet) is a better
measure of drag and lift to drag ratio.
• Thus wetted area to wing reference area ratio
(Swet/Sref ) is important parameter .
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 72
How to Find L/D Ratio
• First we will find L/D)max
• Then from L/D)max we will find L/D for cruise and loiter
– We will need following first
• Wetted Area Ratios
• Aspect ratio
• Wetted aspect ratio
• Procedure to find L/D)max is explained in the following slides
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 73
Wetted Area Ratios
• Select (Swet/Sref )
from fig for your
type of a/c on
vertical axis
• There are other
methods to be
discussed later
05/11/2020 74
How to Estimate Aspect ratio
Find aspect ratio from
table 4.1 or the formula
How to estimate wetted Aspect Ratio
• Select (Swet/Sref ) from fig for your type of a/c
• Find wetted area ratio from fig 3.5
• Find aspect ratio from table 4.1 or the formula ( Next slide)
• Find wetted aspect ratio using formula
• Using wetted aspect ratio find max lift to drag ratio. Next slide
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Maximum lift-to-drag ration trends
Select a value than related to your a/c
05/11/2020 77
L/D for range and Loiter
Using L/D)max calculated earlier find L/D for cruise and loiter
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 78
Fuel Fraction
• Now as you have fuel fraction for each mission
segment find the over all fuel fraction using eq:
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 79
Gross takeoff weight
• Now you have
– Empty weight fraction
– Fuel weight fraction
– Crew weight
– payload
• Use Equation
• To find Gross takeoff weight
• Where We / Wo = AWoc Kvs
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 80
Gross takeoff weight
• You will get a equation of the form:
a Where a,b,c and d are constants with + or - sign
W0 d
1 b cW0
• Use Historical data for your type of a/c to make an
initial guess for gross weight
• Solve equation through an iterative process till the
result converges
• Result is your initial estimated gross weight
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 81
Summary
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Example
• Anti submarine warfare aircraft
05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 83
a=10800
b=-0.3773
a c=0.93
W0 d
1 b cW0 d=-0.07
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05/11/2020 AE 281: Chapter 5 (Part A) 85
Trade Studies
• Trade studies are meant to evaluate alternate options in
terms of performance parameters e.g.
– Range trade studies
– Payload trade studies
• Objective is to offer customer or decision makers
alternate options
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THANK YOU