Endocrine System
…………….+ exocrine pancreas
What is an endocrine gland?
What makes it different than an exocrine
gland?
An endocrine gland secretes its product(s)
(hormones) into the bloodstream
hormones travel to a target tissue to exert
their effects. Think of an example.
Pituitary
An exocrine gland secretes its product(s)
through a duct onto a surface. Again, an
example? Sweat gland
Parathyroid Glands
Where are they? Embedded on the back side of the
thyroid
How many are there? 4
What hormone(s) do they secrete? Parathyroid hormone
Parathormone (PTH)
Produced when serum calcium becomes too low
(hypocalcemia)
Promotes:
Ca resorption from bone
Promotes P excretion by kidneys
Increased formation of active Vitamin D3 by kidneys,
vitamin D absorbs calcium
Ca absorption from gut, resorption by renal tubules
Calcitonin
Works opposite PTH to maintain calcium homeostasis,
so secreted (by THYROID gland) in response to increased
serum Ca (hypercalcemia)
Stops PTH resorptive action of bone
Active Vitamin D3
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
Formed in the kidney under PTH regulation
Promotes Ca absorption in gut
Don’t worry about learning this
EVALUATION
Serum Calcium
Serum Phosphorus
Radiographs of bones
Evaluation of renal function
Knowledge of diet
Thyroid Gland
Where is it?
What hormones (besides calcitonin) does it secrete?
Thyroid hormone
T3 and T4
The “thyroid hormones”
T4 – 60% bound; 40% free to regulate TSH production
(from where??)
T3 – biologically active form
Stimulates basal metabolic rate
Promotes protein synthesis
Stimulates glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipid
catabolism, cholesterol synthesis
EVALUATION
Serum T4 concentration
Serum T3 concentration
Serum cholesterol – about 2/3 hypothyroid dogs have
increased cholesterol
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone from pituitary gland)
response test (best test but expensive)
Palpate thyroid gland, esp. in cats (hyperthyroidism in
older cats, T4 is above normal)
Results:
If too low, hypothyroidism
Common in dogs, especially larger breeds
Sluggish, cold sensitive, skin problems
May be over diagnosed
If too high, hyperthyroidism
Common in older cats due to tumor
Active, thin, vocalize, may develop heart murmur
Adrenal Cortex
Where are adrenal glands? Close to the kidneys
How many are there? 2
Which hormones do they secrete? Adrenaline
(epinephrine), norepinephrine
Glucocorticoids
(corticosteroids)
Stress hormones
Secretion stimulated by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic
hormone) from pituitary when blood cortisol decreases
Cause hyperglycemia
Suppress wound healing, inflammation, and
immunologic response. How do they change the WBC
count? (stress leukogram)
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone – acts on the kidneys to regulate Na and K
balance
Androgens, Estrogens,
Progestogens
Sex hormones – also secreted by the adrenal cortex to a
lesser degree than the gonads
EVALUATION
Plasma cortisol concentration
ACTH Response test (expensive test)
Dexamethasone Suppression Test
Blood glucose levels
Blood cell counts
Serum K, Na
Results:
If levels of glucocorticoids too high,
hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s
Disease)
Poor muscle tone (pot-bellied),
alopecia, organ damage
If levels too low (mineralocorticoids
important here) – hypoadrenocorticism
(Addison’s Disease)
Weakness, collapse, elevated serum K
Pancreas – Endocrine
Functions
Where is it? In the abdomen close to duodenum
What hormones does it secrete? Insulin and glucagon
Insulin
Secreted by islet beta cells when blood glucose
elevated
Promotes anabolic (building) metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids
Glucagon
Secreted by islet alpha cells in response to low blood
glucose – works opposite insulin
Promotes mobilization of energy producing substances
and inhibits transport of glucose across cell membranes
Blood glucose concentration
factors
Increases blood glucose
Glucagon
Cortisols
Epinephrine
T4
Growth Hormone
Digestion and Intestinal Absorption –
simple stomached animals/humans
Decreases blood glucose
Insulin
EVALUATION
Blood glucose concentration
Read immediately with whole blood, or separate serum within 30
minutes; 12 hour fast prior to sampling
Urine glucose concentration
Urine ketones
Lipemia (common in diabetics) interferes with evaluation of
glucose concentration
Glucose tolerance test
Results:
Stages of hyperglycemia (increased blood glucose)
in diabetes mellitus
1) Preclinical – prolonged after eating
2) Persistent increase below renal threshold (140 –
170 mg/dL)
Differentiate non-diabetic causes, i.e. stress (might not be
diabetes)
Glucose tolerance test useful
3) Exceeds renal threshold – glycosuria
4) Ketoacidosis – ketonemia, ketonuria, metabolic
acidosis (persistent high, high blood sugars,
mobilizing fat for energy, ketone build up in urine,
potential fatal and always ICU)
Diabetes mellitus
Fairly common in dogs and cats
Cats – blood glucose levels can reach 300 mg/dL with
stress alone. Persistent levels of this sort in the dog
mean diabetes mellitus.
EXOcrine Pancreas
Pancreas produces digestive enzymes responsible for
much of the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats.
Secretions are transported to the duodenum via the
pancreatic duct.
EVALUATION
Trypsin-like immunoreactivity test (TLI)
The definitive test for Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency
(EPI); also sometimes called maldigestion
EPI patient will be thin (can see the ribs), producing large
volumes of soft (“cow patty”) stool, and generally have a
ravenous appetite (pancreas isn’t breaking what they’re
eating down)
Typical EPI Patient Appearance
Pancreatitis (inflammation of
pancreas)
Typical clinical presentation
Obese
Toy breed dog (though not always)
Fatty meal
Vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, painful cranial abdomen
EVALUATION
Serum amylase
Serum lipase
Elevated in pancreatitis
These are pancreatic leakage enzymes, that leak from
damaged cells to be significantly elevated in serum
cPL Snap test
Canine pancreatic lipase – considered a more accurate
indicator of pancreatitis
The End