Slide 6.
Chapter 6
Culture and styles
of management
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Slide 6.2
Chapter 6 aims to give a clearer idea of:
•How cultural values affect the way in which
managers work
•How certain practices are shaped according to
cultural preferences of the managers concerned.
Concept 6.1 examines how management tasks are
affected by cultural values
Concept 6.2 considers other views on cultural
values.
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Slide 6.3
Preface:
Static or dynamic approach to culture
• The theories such as those devised by Hofstede
and Trompenaars are essentially static and
assumed to be absolute or universal.
• Gullestrup (2006) proposes a conceptualisation
of culture which has both static and dynamic
elements. The model which he has devised has
three dimensions: horizontal, vertical and
dynamic.
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Slide 6.4
Preface:
Static or dynamic approach to culture
The vertical dimension focuses on the value system of a
culture: at the base is the core culture; above these are its
manifestations.
Figure 6.1 The semi-static cultural model
Source: Gullestrup, 2003b: 41, adapted.
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Slide 6.5
Preface:
Static or dynamic approach to culture
(Continued)
The horizontal dimension with eight cultural segments
•Technology
•Economic institutions
•Social institutions
•Political institutions
•Language & communication
•Reproduction & socialisation
•Ideology
•Religious institutions
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Slide 6.6
The dynamic dimension:
Change-initiating factors
• The dynamic dimension accounts for the notion
that the foundations of culture can be influenced
internally and externally by mutual interaction. The
following change-initiating factors may (or may not)
bring change to a culture:
• Internal pressures:
– Developments in research, technology, trade, industry
– Changes in the political/social arena
• External pressures:
– Changes in nature, influenced by humans or otherwise
– Internal pressures in other cultures.
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Slide 6.7
Gullestrup’s general dynamics cultural model
Figure 6.2 The general dynamics culture model
Source: Gullestrup, 2006: 153, adapted.
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Slide 6.8
Concept 6.1
Management tasks and cultural values
Concept 6.1 examines how management tasks are
affected by cultural values.
Key management tasks are examined in terms of a
number of cultural values that emerged in previous
chapters.
These values will be presented in terms of a model
of culture.
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Slide 6.9
Management tasks
1. Planning
– goals and objectives of a company or department
2. Organising
– organising actions needed to achieve the goals
3. Staffing
– allocating employees to particular positions
4. Directing
– leading the organisation and its employees towards
its goals
5. Controlling
– monitoring performance of the company or department
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Slide 6.10
Effect of cultural values on management
• The way tasks and responsibilities are performed will
be examined in the light of key number of cultural
values (model of culture).
• These cultural values emerged from cultural
dimensions found by scholars.
• Eight cultural value orientations have a
considerable influence on the way managers perform
their activities.
• These cultural value orientations will be examined
together with their impact on the management
activities.
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Slide 6.11
Model of culture
These cultural value orientations are represented
in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 A model of culture
Source: adapted from Doing Business Internationally, Participant Workbook: 2.3.
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Slide 6.12
Time focus
• Different cultures have different perceptions of
time according to their environment, history,
traditions and general practices.
• Hall and Hall (1990) distinguish two prominent
time systems that are of particular relevance to
management:
– Monochronic
• time is used in a linear way: one activity at a time
– Polychronic
• people tend to focus on multiple tasks.
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Slide 6.13
Time focus and management tasks
Monochronic cultures Polychronic cultures
[Link] schedules [Link] in planning
[Link] and task-focused [Link] holistic and people-
[Link] focused on shorter focused
term [Link] on longer term
[Link] of detailed [Link] of implicit
information knowledge/information
[Link] control systems and [Link] control systems
strict deadlines involving people
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Slide 6.14
Time orientation
Past, present, future
Cultures focused on the:
Past uphold tradition in line with the history of
the company
Present aim for quick results and short-term gain
Future assess plans in the light of expected future
benefit.
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Slide 6.15
Time orientation and management tasks
Past-oriented cultures Future-oriented cultures
[Link] in long-term time [Link]-term plans and
frames results
[Link] goals guide the [Link]-ordinated to meet
process longer-range goals
[Link] in adapting criteria [Link] to meet long-
by selection term business goals
[Link] of the [Link] long-term
company’s values benefits
[Link] performance in [Link] objectives in the
keeping customary goals long-term context
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Slide 6.16
Power
Power value orientation: the extent to which a
society expect or accept that power is distributed
unequally.
•Hierarchy
– Level of power and authority are strictly marked
•Equality
– Status and formal position have less influence.
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Slide 6.17
Power and management tasks
Hierarchy Equality
1. More autocratic or [Link] participative planning
paternalistic planning [Link] structure
2. Organisational structure is encourages individual autonomy
tightly controlled [Link] relations should not be
3. Subordinates expect bosses strictly prescribed
to take initiatives [Link] exhibit consultative
4. Employees like being style
closely supervised [Link] develop
5. Employees prefer the performance objectives with their
personal control of superiors bosses
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Slide 6.18
Competition (Competitiveness)
• Competitive
When competitiveness is valued, the culture is
focused on:
– Acquiring wealth
– Performing well
– Achieving ambitions.
• Co-operative
– Competition is not considered to be the main purpose
of business
– Stress is on the quality of life, relationships and
consensus.
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Slide 6.19
Competition and management tasks
Competitive Co-operative
[Link] performance when [Link] relationships in
implementing plans. plan implementation.
[Link] have more of a [Link] have more of a
leadership role. facilitating role.
[Link] of employees on ability [Link] elected on ability
to act independently. to work well in groups.
[Link] leader’s role is to track and [Link] leader’s role is to facilitate
reward achievement. relationships.
[Link] control systems are [Link] performance is recognised
performance-based. as a standard for success.
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Slide 6.20
Action (activity)
Human expression as resulting in some form of
activity:
• Doing
The stress in doing cultures is placed on:
– Action
– Achieving personal goals.
• Being
The stress is placed on:
– Working for the moment
– Living the experience.
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Slide 6.21
Action and management tasks
Doing cultures Being cultures
[Link] time-framed [Link] focus on the vision.
action steps. [Link] on common vision and
[Link]-oriented personal trust.
documentation. [Link] development based on
[Link] to fulfil personal or social criteria.
organisational tasks. [Link] philosophy, values and
[Link] and competence. style.
[Link] ways the tasks are [Link] of performance
done. measurement less systematic.
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Slide 6.22
Space
Private/Public
•One aspect of space orientation is related to
private or public space
•Another aspect related to invisible boundary
around every person
•The concept of space can be seen in terms of
personality.
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Slide 6.23
Space and management tasks
Private Public
[Link] of planning: [Link]-oriented or
individualistic or systematic. authoritative forms.
[Link] task-centred. [Link]-centred
[Link] information about how approaches.
staff are to be employed. [Link] information.
[Link] and employees do [Link] of the place where an
not share the same office. employee works does not
[Link] measures of reflect the person’s rank.
performance. [Link] checks on
performance.
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Slide 6.24
Communication
• Role of the context in the communication process
(Hall & Hall, 1990).
• Context related to framework, background and
surrounding circumstances.
• High-context
– Information is ‘hidden’ in the context
– Situation carries most of the information
• Low-context
– The messages are clear and explicit.
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Slide 6.25
Communication and context
Low context High-context
1. Plans are explicit, detailed, 1. Plans are more implicit, with
quantifiable, info-based. less detailed instructions.
2. Explicit, detailed guidelines for 2. Implicit task assignment and
task responsibilities via verbal/written responsibilities, understood according
instruction. to context.
3. Detailed employment contracts 3. Implicit criteria/methods for
and explicit performance appraisals. employment and appraisal
4. Managers outline specific (path 4. Managers reach goals
to) goals. Instructions specific, conflict through relationships/group
depersonalised. processes. Conflict resolved
beforehand.
5. Control more task-driven:
5. Control more process-
monitoring used to ensure objectives.
driven: control aspects embedded in
cultural context.
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Slide 6.26
Messages and context
Figure 6.4 Messages and context (adapted from Hall)
Source: Usunier, 1993: 103.
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Slide 6.27
Structure
• The term ‘structure’ refers in business to an
organisational structure.
• Value orientation concerns the relation between
the individual and the group.
• Individualism
– ‘I’ predominates over the ‘We’
• Collectivism
– Interests of the group prevail over individuals.
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Slide 6.28
Structure and business activities
Individualism Collectivism
1. Those involved in planning are 1. Plans developed within shared
expected to take initiative to present values used for measuring and justifying
views. activities.
2. Emphasis on individual when 2. Emphasis on the group: the
assigning tasks and resources. team is assigned tasks and resources.
3. Organisations not expected to 3. Promotion based on seniority.
look after their employees’ career Managers evaluated on their conformity
development. to org./group norms.
4. Leaders expect employees to 4. Leaders expect loyalty in
meet/exceed responsibilities. exchange for protection; group/top-down
5. Control exerted by individual control.
standards of excellence. Self-respect 5. Deviation from standards and
discourages deviance from standards. expectations discouraged through
group-oriented pressure.
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Slide 6.29
Concept 6.2
Other views on values
Increasing interdependence between cultures has
raised questions about the stability of cultures and
values.
•Søderberg and Holden(2002), for example, refer to
the way culture can be conceptualised in terms of
relations between people rather than in terms of
stable sets of values.
•This approach makes a standard cultural profile
impossible.
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Slide 6.30
Culture and context
Culture can be seen as a sharing of ‘patterns of
meaning and interpretation’ resulting from
interaction with others.
•Multinational managers may relate to this idea,
since their role is to ensure effective interaction
between multicultural teams, rather than to deal
with cultures in isolation.
•Earley (2006) claims that ‘culture is not a value or
set of values; culture is the meaning which we
attach to aspects of the world around us’.
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Slide 6.31
Culture as a psychological construct
Earley calls for a greater focus on meaning as
culture. Values are only one element allowing
meaning to be attached to the environment.
•He proposes (more) research into culture as a
psychological construct whereby an individual is
subject to a number of influences.
•Need to understand linkage among cultures,
perceptions, actions, organisations, etc.
•Cultural intelligence: the extent to which
individuals can adapt to cultural settings.
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Slide 6.32
Conclusion
• Concept 6.1 has developed a model of culture
thereby linking theory and practice.
• Underlying assumption: an individual’s framework
of cultural preferences influences management
tasks.
• Concept 6.2 has shown how cultural values can
be seen as a sharing of patterns of meaning and
interpretation through interaction with others.
Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-Cultural Management PowerPoints on the Web, 3rd edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2015