BENCH FITTING

Name – W.M.S.P. WEERASINGHA

Course - N.D.T
Field - CIVIL
Reg. No - 09/IT/CI/100
Date of sub -2010/11/
 Project

Part I : M12 x 1.75 x 110mm M.S. Tee bolt with hexagonal nut;

Part II : Bolt gauge

 Objectives
 To identify and apply safety precautions in the workshop for personal safety, safety
of others and safety of tools and equipments.

 To identify how to use measuring and gauging tools.

 To understand applications of marking out equipments in the bench work.

 To identify basic principles of machines in the workshop.

 To identify some properties of engineering materials that used for making certain
equipments and tools.

 To know about some specifications and standards used in the bench fitting work.
 Procedure
Making M12 x 1.75 x 110mm M.S. Tee bolt with hexagonal nut
 The surfaces of given cylindrical work piece were filed by using a file with the
help of vice.
 Some chalk was coated on the surface of the work piece and the centre of one side
was determined by using odd leg caliper , then it was marked by using centre
punch and hammer.
 The circle was drawn with divider and a hexagon was constructed in the circle.
 Also the lines of hexagon was marked by using centre punch and hammer.
 The centre was drilled with the drilling machine and the hexagonal shape was cut
with help of a vice.
 After the internal thread was cut by using tap and wrench, sometimes lubricants
were applied.
 The nut was filed roughly and finally it was filed with smooth file to get good
finish.
 Then another work piece was used to create the head of the bolt.
 Some chalk was coated on the surface of the work piece.
 A square was drawn on one side of the work piece by using surface gauge and V-
block.
 The square was marked by using centre punch and hammer.
 The square was cut by using hacksaw with help of a vice.
 After it was filed and drilled to cut thread with the tap and wrench.
 The given work piece for making bolt was filed and cut external thread by using
die and stock with help of a vice.
 The bolt head was fixed to the bolt by riveting it with the hammer.
 The riveted surface was filed smoothly to obtain a good finish.

Bolt gauge
 The given measurements were marked on the provided work piece for the bolt
gauge.
 Marked lines were punched and unnecessary parts were removed by using hacksaw
and chisel.
 Finally it was filed smoothly to obtain a good finish.
 Discussion
Engineering materials

Ferrous Metals
Cast Iron
Cast iron is easy to give it any desired form by molding. It resists oxidation (rust)
better than either wrought iron or steel. It's compressive strength is very high, but it's
tensile strength is comparatively low. Cast iron cannot be riveted or welded by forging. It
is brittle, breaking off without giving much warning, and stretching but little before
giving way. It is liable to have hidden and small surface defects and air bubbles, which
make its strength uncertain. Carbon percentage is 1.7% - 4.5%.

Wrought Iron
Wrought iron gets its name from the fact that it may be wrought into various shapes
readily under the hammer which was the premier material for construction and strength
for buildings, ships, and other applications from the late 1700s until the early 1900s
when it was mostly replaced by steel. Wrought iron was a mass-produced metal, which
was used when durability and resistance to corrosion was needed.. Wrought Iron is very
malleable and ductile, and can be readily forged, particularly when heated. It cannot be
cast, as it is fusible only at a very high temperature (about 2800° F.), and merely becomes
pasty at the usual furnace temperatures, though because of this quality it is readily united
by welding. Also it cannot be hardened, due to lack of carbon and if pulled apart, the
fracture shows a fibrous break. Carbon percentage of wrought iron is less than 0.05%.

Steel
Steel is derived from iron ore which requires great thermal energy to reduce its
metallic form. The iron is then alloyed with carbon and metals such as nickel or tungsten
to produce steel. Steels are described as mild, medium or high carbon steels, according to
the percentage of carbon they contain.
Mild steel
Mild steel is an iron alloy that contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is very reactive and
will readily revert back to iron oxide in the presence of water, oxygen and ions. The
readiness of steel to oxidize on exterior exposure means that it must be adequately
protected from the elements in order to meet and exceed its design life.

Carbon Steels
Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or
required for chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten,
vanadium or zirconium to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect.

Low Carbon Steel

Has less than 0.3% carbon. Usually ferrite and pearlite, and the material is generally
used as it comes from the hot forming or cold forming processes. Lacks harden ability
because carbon content helps this. Some advantages are posses good formability, posses
good weld ability, lowest cost and rated at 55-60% machine ability. Typically uses for
0.1% - 0.2% of carbon are chain, stampings, rivets, nails, wire, pipe...etc and for 0.2 -
0.3% of carbon are structural steels, machine parts, soft and tough steels...etc.

Medium Carbon Steel

Have between 0.3 and 0.8% carbon. Special advantages are machine ability is 60-
70%; therefore cut slightly better than low carbon steels, good toughness and ductility, a
good balance of properties can be found, extremely popular and have numerous
applications, fair formability and responds to heat treatment but is often used in the
natural condition. Typical Uses are,
0.3-0.4 : lead screws, gears, worms, spindles, shafts, and machine parts.
0.4-0.5 : crankshafts, gears, axles, mandrels, tool shanks, and heat-treated parts.
0.6-0.7 : drop hammers dies, set screws, screwdrivers, and arbors.
0.7-0.8 : tough and hard steel. Anvil faces, band saws, hammers, wrenches, cable.

High Carbon Steel

Over 0.8% carbon and less than 2.11% carbon. Disadvantages are toughness,
formability and harden ability are quite low, not recommended for welding and usually
joined by brazing with low temperature silver alloy making it possible to repair or
fabricate tool-steel parts without affecting their heat treated condition. Advantages are
hardness is high, wear resistance is high, quench cracking is often a problem with severe
quenching and fair formability. Typical Uses are,
0.8-0.9 : punches for metal, rock drills, shear blades, cold chisels, rivet sets.
0.9-1.0 : for hardness and high tensile strength, springs, cutting tools, press tools.
1.0-1.1 : drills, taps, milling cutters, knives
1.1-1.2 : drills, taps, knives, cold cutting dies, wood working tools
1.2-1.3 : files, reamers, knives, tools for cutting wood and brass
1.3-1.4 : razors, saws, and where wear resistance is important.

Plain Carbon Steel

Although called plane carbon actually the iron and carbon alloy contains manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon. Its strength is primarily a function of its carbon content,
increasing with carbon amount. The ductility decreases as the carbon content increases.
Some disadvantages are harden ability is low, physical properties are decreased by both
high and low temps and subject to corrosion in most environments.
High Speed Steel
The term High Speed Steel was derived from the fact that it is capable of cutting metal
at a much higher rate than carbon tool steel and continues to cut and retain its hardness
even when the point of the tool is heated to a low red temperature. Tungsten is the major
alloying element but it is also combined with molybdenum, vanadium and cobalt in
varying amounts. Although replaced by cemented carbides for many applications it is still
widely used for the manufacture of taps, dies, twist drills, reamers, saw blades and other
cutting tools.

Stainless Steel
Stainless Steels are iron-base alloys containing Chromium. They usually contain less
than 30% Cr and more than 50% Fe which attain their stainless characteristics because of
the formation of an invisible and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film. This oxide
establishes on the surface and heals itself in the presence of oxygen. Some other alloying
elements added to enhance specific characteristics include nickel, molybdenum, copper,
titanium, aluminum, silicon, niobium, and nitrogen. Carbon is usually present in amounts
ranging from less than 0.03% to over 1.0% in certain martensitic grades. Corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties are commonly the principal factors in selecting a
grade of stainless steel for a given application. Stainless steels are divided into five groups
such as martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels,
duplex (ferritic-austenitic), stainless steels and precipitation-hardening stainless steels.

Non Ferrous Metal

Non Ferrous metals are the metals which does not contain iron. They are not magnetic
and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals. Most commonly used non
ferrous metals are Aluminum, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, Gilding Metal and Zinc.

Aluminium
Aluminium is a widely used non ferrous metal. It is grayish-white in color, soft and
malleable. This non ferrous metal is conductive to heat and electricity. It is corrosion
resistant. Aluminium can be welded but this is difficult. Special processes need to be
adopted in order to weld it properly. Due to its light weight, it is used in the manufacturing
of aircrafts and boats. Its other uses are window frames, saucepans, packaging and
insulation, pistons and cranks.

Aluminium alloys
Aluminium alloys are composed of Aluminium, Copper and Manganese. Its also
Ductile, Malleable, Work Hardens. It is used in the manufacturing of aircrafts and vehicle
parts.

Copper
Copper is another very important pure non ferrous metal. Its red in colour, tough and
ductile. It is very good electrical conductor and offers great resistance to corrosion. Copper
can work hard or cold but it needs frequent annealing. Copper is mostly used in the
manufacturing of electric wires, cables and conductors. Its other uses are water and central
heating pipes and cylinders, Printed circuit boards and manufacturing of special roofs.
Tin
Tin is a pure non ferrous metal. It is white in color, soft and corrosion resistant. It is
used in Tinplate and making bronze.

Brass
Another important non ferrous metal is Brass which is not a pure metal but
combination of Copper and Zinc. It contains 65% copper and 35% Zinc. This non ferrous
metal is very corrosive, yellow in colour, tarnishes very easily. It is harder than copper and
its good electrical conductor.

Lead
Lead is a pure and an important non ferrous metal. It is the heaviest common metal.
The other characteristics are its softness, malleability and brightness. It is shiny metal
when new but quickly oxidizes to a dull grey. It has resistant to corrosion. Its uses are
different than other non ferrous metals. It is used in protection against X-Ray machine,
Paints, roof coverings, flashings etc.

Zinc
Lead is also a pure and an important non ferrous metal. A layer of oxide protects it
from corrosion. It is bluish-white in color and easily worked. It is used to makes brass by
mixing and processing with Copper. It is used as coating layer for steel galvanized
corrugated iron roofing, tanks, buckets, rust-proof paints etc.

Gilding metal
This non ferrous metal comprises of 85% copper and 15% zinc. It is corrosion resistant,
golden in color and enamels well. Its uses are Beaten metalwork and artificial jewellery
manufacturing.
Workbench
A workbench is sturdy table at which manual work is done. They range from simple
flat surfaces to very complex designs that may be considered tools in themselves.
Workbenches vary in size from tiny jewelers benches to the huge benches used by
staircase makers. Almost all workbenches are rectangular in shape, often using the surface,
corners and edges as flat/square and dimension standards. Design is as varied as type of
work for which the benches are used but most share these attributes,
• A comfortable height for working with provisions for seated or standing work.
• A way to fix the work piece to the surface so it may be worked with both hands.
• Provisions for mounting, storing and accessing tools.
Workbenches are made from many different materials including metal, wood, stone,
and composites depending on the needs of the work.

Bench vice
A bench vice is the device for holding the work piece where most hand processes to
be carried out. The body of the vice is made of cast iron while the two clamping jaws are
made of hardened tool steel. Some bench vice has a swivel base, which can set the work
piece at an angle to the table. The vice height should be correct ergonomically. Vice
clamps, made of copper are fitted over the vice jaws when holding finished work to avoid
damage to the finish surfaces.
Care of Vices
• Do not direct impact the vice body by the hammer.
• Light hammering can be done on and only on the
anvil of the vice.
• To avoid over clamping, the handle of the vice should
be tightened by hand only.

Measuring and Marking Tools

Scriber
Scriber is used to mark or scribe lines onto the work piece. It is made of hardened tool
steel. It’s length varies from 150 to 300mm and has diameter that varies from 3 to 5 mm.

Steel ruler
Steel ruler is used to measure and mark dimensions. It is graduated on both sides in
millimeters, centimeters and inches.

Calipers
It is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an object. A
caliper can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of
the caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is then
removed and the distance read by measuring between the tips with a measuring tool, such
as a ruler. Calipers are classified into several types:

Outside calipers - Outside calipers are used for measuring

external dimensions such as the length, diameter, or even the
thickness of a solid.
Inside calipers - Inside calipers are used for measuring internal
dimensions such as the diameter of a hole, or the width of a slot
etc.

Divider caliper - In the metalworking field divider calipers are

used in the process of marking out suitable work pieces. The
points are sharpened so that they act as scribers, one leg can
then be placed in the dimple created by a center or prick punch
and the other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line on the work
piece's surface, thus forming an arc or circle.

Oddleg caliper - It is generally used to scribe a line a set

distance from the edge of work piece. The bent leg is used to
run along the work piece edge while the scriber makes its mark
at a predetermined distance, this ensures a line parallel to the
edge.

Centre punch
It is used to mark a centre for a hole to be drilled. It can also
be used for marking points along a line for cutting. Its tapered
point end has an angle of 60 degrees.

File
A file is a tool used to shape a work piece by cutting fine
amounts of material. It most commonly refers to the hand tool
style, which takes the form of a hardened steel bar with a series
of sharp, parallel ridges, called teeth. Files can be classified in
to several types by considering sizes(length of the file such as 4,
6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 inches), shapes(flat, hand, round,
square and round, half-round, three square, rasp), and cutting
teeth(rough, smooth, single-cut, double-cut).

Hammer
The type most commonly used is the ball pein hammer, which has a flat striking face
and a ball-shaped end (called the pein). Hammer heads are made from medium carbon
steel. The two ends must be hardened and tempered, the centre of the head with the eye
being left soft. It is specified according to its weight.
Safety and Care of Hammer -
The hammer head is firmly fixed to the shaft by a wedge.
The striking face of the hammer head does not wear.

Try square
It is type of square that made of hardened tool steel. It is
used to check straightness, check squareness of a work piece
and mark perpendicular lines onto a work piece since it
consists of a fixed, 90-degree angle.
Marking - out table
It has been machined and scraped to a high degree of flatness.
The flat surface is being used as a datum surface for marking
out and for measuring purposes. Granite is commonly used to
make it.

Chisel
A chisel is a cutting tool with a sharpened edge at the end of
a metal blade that can cut through metal often by driving with
a mallet or hammer. Cold chisel is a tool made of tempered
steel used for cutting 'cold' metals, meaning that they are not
used in conjunction with heating torches, forges, etc. Some
cold chisels are made of copper in order to ensure that they
will not produce sparks. Cold chisels are used to remove
waste metal when a very smooth finish is not required or
when the work cannot be done easily with other tools, such as
a hacksaw, file, bench shears or power tools.

Surface gauge
A surface gauge is very useful when finding the centre of a
piece of round section material. It is normally used to scribe
parallel lines. It's base is heavy and this means it is stable
when in used. Surface gauges sometimes have magnetic bases
and this means they can be locked onto metal surfaces
making it easier to use.

Tap and wrench

Taps are used to cut the internal screw threads. They are made of hardened High
Carbon Steel or High Speed Steel. The ends of the shank are square to fit a wrench.
Taper Tap
The tap is tapered off for a length of 8 to 10 threads and is the first tap to be used in a
hole to start the thread form.
Second Tap
The tap is tapered off for a length of 4 to 5 threads to facilitate picking up the threads
cut by the taper tap.
Plug Tap
This is fully threaded throughout its length and is called a 'bottoming' tap. This tap
used to cut the bottom of a blind hole.

Taps Tap wrench

Stock and die

Dies are used for cutting external threads on round bar or tubes. Dies are made of
Hardened High Carbon Steel or High Speed Steel.
Split Die or Button Die - Split die is held in place in the stock as
shown in figure 38. The split permits a small amount of
adjustment in the size of the die by adjusting the screws in the
stock. Since split dies cut their thread complete in one cut, the die
thread are tapered and back off for one third of their length.

Die nuts - Die nuts are not capable of any adjustment. They are
not usually employed for cutting threads from the bar, but for
rectifying damage to existing threads. They are externally formed
to hexagonal shape for use with a spanner.

Hacksaw
A hacksaw is generally used for cutting a metal into pieces. It is a "U" shaped steel
frame with a pistol handgrip and a saw blade. The frame may be of fixed type to take only
one length of blade, or adjustable to take different blade lengths. It has a wing nut to adjust
the tension of the blade.

Safety and Care of Hacksaw:

• The cutting action is carried on the forward action only. So the blade must be
mounted with its teeth pointing forward.
• Suitable tension should be applied on the blade to avoid breakage or loosen.
• Change the blade if some teeth are broken.
• Avoid rapid and erratic strokes of cut.
• Avoid too much pressure.
• Work piece must be hold firmly.

Hacksaw blade
A metal blade of high carbon steel, alloy steel or high speed steel having small, close
teeth on one edge, held under tension in a U-shaped frame. They are supplied according to
material, hardening, length and pitch.

V Block
V blocks usually in a couple are made of cast iron or steel in case-
hardening. They are generally used for holding circular work piece for
marking out or machining.
Types of drills and drilling machines
Types of drills
Drills are equipments or tools that used in making cylindrical holes. Various types of
drills are designed for different. They are designed to cut while doing a clockwise rotating
motion. Several drills are coolant fed which contain a channel or hole for directing the
coolant fed near to the cutting edges. The split point drill heads of drills are used for chip
clearance and for excellent centering. Drill can be used in cutting aluminum, general
purpose metals, brass, copper, bronze, ceramic, and plastic, stainless steel, steel, wood,
titanium and hardened materials.
Some types of drills are described below.

Twist drill
Twist drills are the most common cutting tools used with drilling machines which are
designed to make round holes quickly and accurately in all materials. They are called twist
drills mainly because of the helical flutes or grooves that wind around the body from the
point to the neck of the drill and appear to be twisted. Twist drills are simply constructed
but designed very tough to withstand the high torque of turning, the downward pressure on
the drill, and the high heat generated by friction. There are two common types of twist
drills, high-speed steel drills, and carbide-tipped drills.
The most common type used for field and maintenance shop work is the high-speed
steel twist drill because of its low cost. Carbide-tipped metal drills are used in production
work where the drill must remain sharp for extended periods, such as in a numerically
controlled drilling machine.

Center drill
It is used in working with hard materials to provide a starting hole for a larger sized
drill bit or to make a conical indentation in the end of a work piece.

Indexable drill
This provides an excellent performance in making short hole drillings. Stainless steel
is drilled 3x in diameter and only a short-hole must be done.

Diamond drill
It is used on ceramic, glass, tile, limestone, stained glass, marble, fiberglass,
porcelain, stone, slate and porcelain tile. When using this drill, the main concern is to
obtain water at the edge of the drill bit. Drilling fiberglass may be done with or without
water but make sure that the fiberglass has ample amount of water just to get the drill wet.

Adjustable bit
This is built with a changeable cutter blade to bore holes of various sizes. It is also
used for drilling gaps for wiring or piping.
Around-the-corner bit
It is used to cut arched holes stretched in corners with a diagonal cutting surface.

Plastic bit
This is designed with a tip so as to prevent splintering when drilling plastic. It is
important to reduce the speed and slowly drill the other side of the plastic.

Plug cutter
Use this to remove cylindrical shapes from the wood. It covers the screw using a
small cylindrical plug.

Auger bits
This drill creates drill holes in wooden materials. The drill ends have a screw head so
that the bits may be self fed.

Brad-point drill
This drill looks almost the same as the usual bits but it has sharpened point to make
wood drilling a lot easier. This drill has cleaner holes other than spade bits.

Counter bore
The drill allows a screw to be driven under the wood outside. The holes that are
drilled may be filled with a plug or wire.

Drill saw bit

It is used to cut holes such as wood and metal and can enlarge current holes.

Countersink
A drill that has an angled tip design that forms a "slump" in the screw head.

Fly cutter
This one is often used to cut circles in wood and other soft metals. The diameter of
circles may be adjusted by changing the cutter blade setting.

Hole saw
It cut holes from one to six centimeters in diameter and has a center bit for directing
the cutting blade edge of the saw.

Reamer bit
Tapered bit of reamer may used on existing holes rather than to enlarge holes.

Wire Brushes
It use to remove rust and to clean up metal and is available either as a wheel or a cup
with wire brush.
Types of drilling machines
Drilling machines are one of the most common machines found in the machine shop.
Many types of them are specifically used for a certain drilling work.

Pillar drill
A pillar drill is a fixed style of drilling machine that can be mounted on a stand or
bolted to the floor or workbench. Unlike a hand-held drill machine, it is far more accurate.
The pillar drill is also known as drill press, pedestal drill or bench pillar drill. It comprises
of a base that supports a column, table, pillar, spindle and a drill head. The height of the
drill table can be adjusted by means of a table lift crank that can be locked in position with
a table lock.

1. Locking lever - prevent lowering of the drill assembly.

2. Chuck - holding device for the drill bit.
3. Safety guard.
4. Work table.
5. Work table lock - holding the table in position when
the height has been selected.
6. Pillar. (The Column)
7. Lowering handles - rotate to lower the chuck assembly
(with drill bit)
8. Pulley gearing

Drill press
A drill press is also called a bench drill because it is a type of drill that is mounted on
a work bench. Its mechanism includes the pillar, spindle, table, drill head, and the base. A
drill press is motor powered and does not consume much effort compared to other manual
drill types. This is a fixed drill that can accurately drill holes on an equal distance. This is
because the material that requires drilling can securely be fixed on the table. Most
common machining operations performed on a drill press are drilling, reaming, tapping,
counter boring, countersinking, and spot facing. There are many different types of drill
presses, most common categories are upright sensitive, upright, radial, and special purpose
drill presses.

Upright sensitive drill press - It is a light-duty type of drilling machine

that normally incorporates a belt drive spindle head. This machine is
generally used for moderate-to-light duty work. The upright sensitive
drill press gets its name due to the fact that the machine can only be
hand fed. The sensitive drill press is manufactured in a floor style or a
bench style.

Upright drill press - It is a heavy duty type of drilling machine normally

incorporating a geared drive spindle head. This type of drilling machine
is used on large hole-producing operations that typically involve larger
or heavier parts. The upright drill press allows the operator to hand feed
or power feed the tool into the work piece.
Radial arm or Radial drill press - The radial arm drill press allows
the operator to position the spindle directly over the work piece
rather than move the work piece to the tool. The design of the radial
drill press gives it a great deal of versatility, especially on parts too
large to position easily. Radial drills offer power feed on the
spindle, as well as an automatic mechanism to raise or lower the
radial arm. The wheel head, which is located on the radial arm, can
also be traversed along the arm, giving the machine added ease of
use as well as versatility. Radial arm drill presses can be equipped
with a trunion table or tilting table. This gives the operator the
ability to drill intersecting or angular holes in one setup.

Special purpose drilling machines - There are a number of types of special purpose drilling
machines. The purposes of these types of drilling machines vary. Special purpose drilling
machines include machines capable of drilling 20 holes at once or drilling holes as small
as 0.01 of an inch.

Hand tool drill

Hand tool drill includes the different types of drilling tools powered manually. These
drills are the most basic type of drilling tools that have been used for a very long time.
They are primitively used in drilling holes on wood, soft metal and plastics.

Hammer drill
It has the similar drilling function as an electric drill. However, it can also provide
hammering action when drilling concrete or masonry work. Hammer drills include the
cam-type hammer drills and rotary hammer drills or masonry drills.

Corded drill
It is also commonly known as pistol-grip drills because of their standard pistol-grip
handle which is a type of the electric drills.

Electric rotary drill

The most basic of the electric drills, the rotary drill is used mainly for boring holes in
a variety of materials. These can be either mains-operated (i.e. corded), or battery-operated
(i.e. cordless). Different functions incorporated into some models include variable speed
and reversing, and attachments can be used to enable different functions, such as sanding
and grinding.

Cordless drill
It has the similar functions of other types of drills except that they are powered by
rechargeable batteries. However, due to a limited energy supply provided by a battery,
spare batteries are always recommended during drilling work to continuously drill. It is
also a type of the electric drills.

Gang drilling machine or Gang drill press

It has several work heads positioned over a single table. This type of drill press is
used when successive operations are to be done. For instance, the first head may be used
to spot drill. The second head may be used to tap drill. The third head may be used, along
with a tapping head, to tap the hole. The fourth head may be used to chamfer.
Multiple spindle drilling machine or multi spindle drill press
This special purpose drill press has many spindles connected to one main work head.
All of the spindles are fed into the work piece at the same time. This type of drilling
machine is especially useful when you have a large number of parts with many holes
located close together.

Micro drill press

It is an extremely accurate, high spindle speed drill press, and typically very small
and is only capable of handling very small parts. Many micro drill presses are
manufactured as bench top models. They are equipped with chucks capable of holding
very small drilling tools.

Turret type drilling machine

It is equipped with several drilling heads mounted on a turret. Each turret head can be
equipped with a different type of cutting tool. The turret allows the needed tool to be
quickly indexed into position. Modern turret type drilling machines are computer-
controlled so that the table can be quickly and accurately positioned.

Drilling speeds and feeds

The phrase speeds and feeds refers to two separate velocities in machine tool
practice, cutting speed and feed rate. They are often considered as a pair because of their
combined effect on the cutting process.
Cutting speed is the speed difference between the cutting tool and the surface of the
work piece it is operating on. It is expressed in units of distance along the work piece
surface per time, typically surface feet per minute (SFM) or meters per minute (m/min).
Feed rate is the relative velocity at which the cutter is advanced along the work piece.
Feed rate units depend on the motion of the tool and work piece, the units are almost
always distance per spindle revolution in rotating systems. In linear systems, the units are
typically distance per time, although distance per revolution or per cutter tooth are also
sometimes used.
The most efficient speed for operating a drill will depend on many variables such as,
• Composition and hardness of material.
• Depth of hole.
• Efficiency of cutting fluid.
• Type and condition of drilling machine.
• Quality of holes desired.
• Difficulty of set-up.

Spindle speed(RPM) = Cutting speed of work piece(m/min)

π * Diameter of work piece(m)

Application of coolants
Metal working lubricants, coolants and fluids are specialized coatings and carriers for
metal forming, metal cutting, lapping, polishing, and grinding applications. Metal forming
oils, greases and fluids are designed to enhance lubrication during extrusion, wire
drawing, stamping, bending, swaging, rolling, embossing, and other deformation
processes. Metal cutting fluids are used in metal machining for improving tool life
(reducing wear), increasing lubrication, reducing work piece thermal deformation,
improving surface finish and flushing away chips from the cutting zone.
Recommended Speeds and Coolants for HSS Drills

Recommended Feeds For HSS Drills

Designing features of bench drilling machine
As its name implies this type of drilling machine is mounted on a bench. It has a
limited capacity, both in the size of work piece which can be accommodated and the
diameter of hole which can be drilled.

Speed changing
mechanism

Table adjustment
mechanism

Rotary motion of the drill spindle

Bench drilling machine while accommodating feeding
motion

Table adjustment mechanism

Geometrical features necessary for
accurate drilling
Screw thread terminology
The pitch diameter or effective diameter of a parallel thread is the diameter of the
imaginary co-axial cylinder which intersects the surface of the thread in such a manner
that the intercept on a generator of the cylinder, between the points where it meets the
opposite flanks of a thread groove, is equal to half the nominal pitch of the thread. The
major diameter of a thread is the diameter of the imaginary co-axial cylinder that just
touches the crest of an external thread or the root of an internal thread. The minor diameter
is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that just touches the roots of an external thread
and the crests of an internal thread. The crest of a thread is the prominent part of a thread,
whether internal or external. The root is the bottom of the groove between the two
flanking surfaces of the thread whether internal or external. The flanks of a thread are the
straight sides that connect the crest and the root. The angle of a thread is the angle between
the flanks, measured in an axial plane section. The pitch of a thread is the distance,
measured parallel to its axis, between corresponding points on adjacent surfaces, in the
same axial plane.

Different types of screw threads

ISO Metric and Unified standard threads

ISO standard threads are the most common threads in use for most purposes. These
were standardized by the International Organization for Standardization in 1947. Each
thread of ISO metric standard is characterized by its major diameter D and it's pitch P.
They consist of a symmetric V-shaped thread where in the plane of the thread axis, the
flanks of the V have an angle of 60° to each other. The outermost 1/8 and the innermost
1/4 of the height H of the V-shape are cut off from the profile. The major diameter and the
minor diameter is defined maximum dimensions in an external thread which is defined
minimum dimensions in an internal thread. ISO metric threads are designated by the letter
M followed by the value of the major diameter and the pitch, both are expressed in
millimeters and separated by the multiplication sign (example- M8×1.25).
P = Pitch = 1/number of threads per inch
H = Angular depth = 0.866025 * P
H/8 = Shortening of major dia. = 0.108253 * P
H/4 = Shortening of minor dia. = 0.216506 * P
d = Actual depth = 0.541266 * P
r = Radius at the root = 0.1443 * P
Basic height of internal thread = 0.54127 * P
Basic height of external thread = 0.61344 * P

British Standard Whitworth (BSW) threads

Sir Joseph Whitworth proposed this thread in 1841 which was the first standardized
thread form. The principal features of the British Standard Whitworth thread form are that
the angle between the thread flanks is 55 degrees and the thread has radii at both the roots
and the crests of the thread. The thread form is now redundant and has been replaced by
Unified and Metric threads.
 h = Angular depth = 0.960491 * P
D = Depth of rounding = 0.073917 * P
h/6 = Shortening = 0.160083 * P
d = Actual depth = 0.640327 * P
r = Radius at the crest & root = 0.137329 * P
Core diameter = Major diameter - 1.280654 * P
Pitch diameter = Major diameter - .640327 * P

British Association (BA) threads

h = Triangular height = 1.1363365 * P
d = Actual depth = 0.60000 * P
t = Shortening = 0.2681688 * P
r = Radius at the crest & root = 0.1808346 * P
Pitch diameter = Major diameter - 0.6000 * P (d)
Core diameter = Major diameter - 1.2000 * P (2d)

Model Engineer (ME) threads

h = Angular depth = 0.960491 * P
D = Depth of rounding = 0.073917 * P
h/6 = Shortening = 0.160083 * P
d = Actual depth = 0.640327 * P
r = Radius at the crest & root = 0.137329 * P
Core diameter = Major diameter - 1.280654 * P
Pitch diameter = Major diameter - .640327 * P

Unified National Fine (UNF) / Unified National Coarse (UNC) threads

H = Angular depth = 0.866025 * P
H/8 = Shortening of major dia. = 0.108253 * P
H/4 = Shortening of minor dia. = 0.216506 * P
d = Actual depth = 0.541266 * P
r = Radius at the root = 0.1443 * P
Basic height of internal thread = 0.54127 * P
Basic height of external thread = 0.61344 * P

United States Standard (USS) / United States Form (USF) / Society of Automobile
Engineers (SAE) threads
This form also occurs in the National Coarse (N.C.) and National Fine (N.F.) series of
threads. It is very similar to the UNF and UNC threads but has a Flat Root & Crest.

H = Theoretical depth = 0.866 * P

D = Actual depth = 0.6495 * P
F = Width of flat = 0.125 * P
A = Depth of flat = 0.108 * P
Buttress threads
Buttress thread form is a strong low friction thread. However it is designed only to
take large loads in on direction. For a given size this is the strongest of the thread forms.
When taking heavy loads on the near vertical thread face, this thread is almost as efficient
as a square thread form.

V-threads
This thread has been noted on older harley davidson motorcycles and is understood to
have been used on older US cadillac automobiles. Due to the sharp root and crest on this
form, prone to stress cracking. The later UNF/UNC threads should be used where
possible, as these have rounded crests and roots, thus reducing stress concentration. The V-
thread is effectively obsolete. It still remains a very easy thread to cut using single point
tools. The sides of the thread form an angle of 60 degrees with each other. The top and
bottom of the V-threads are theoretically sharp, but in practice the crest has a slight flat
equal to 1/25th*Pitch. This is removed after the thread is cut, thus reducing the actual
diameter slightly below nominal.

H = Theoretical depth = 0.866 * P

D = Actual depth with crest relief
A= Width of flat = P/25
N = Depth of flat

Square threads
Square threads are used for power/force transmission like linear jacks, clamps....etc.
The friction is low and there is no radial forces imposed on the mating nuts. The square
thread is the most efficient conventional power screw form. It is the most difficult form to
machine.

Acme threads
Acme threads are used for power transmission like lathe lead screws. They are easier
to manufacture and has superior root strength characteristics when comparing with the
square threads. The acme screw thread has been developed for machine tool drives. They
are easy to machine and can be used with split nuts. The thread has an optimum efficiency
of about 70% for helix angles between 25 and 65 degrees. Outside this range the
efficiency falls away.
Cutting internal and external threads by manual method
A common method of threading is cutting with taps and dies. Unlike drill bits, hand
taps do not automatically remove the chips they create. A hand tap cannot cut its threads in
a single rotation because it creates long chips which quickly jam the tap, possibly breaking
it. Therefore, in manual thread cutting, normal wrench usage is to cut the threads 1/2 to
2/3 of a turn (180 to 240 degree rotation), then reverse the tap for about 60 degrees until
the chips are broken by the back edges of the cutters. It may be necessary to periodically
remove the tap from the hole to clear the chips, especially when a blind hole is threaded.

Imperial Tap & drill bit size table Metric Tap & drill bit size table
Safety in the workshop
Equipments and hand tools such as hammer, wrench, chisel, hacksaw, bench vice,
file, drilling machine and other tools used in the workshop may be sources of potential
danger. Hand tools may look harmless, but they are the cause of many injuries. These
injuries can be serious, including loss of fingers, eyesight or death. Also failures of jobs
can be caused to loss of time, loss of money to repair the machine if damaged and loss of
production to a company. Some important safety precautions to observe when working in
a workshop are given below.

* Don’t use tools for things they weren’t meant for, such as don't use wrench as a
hammer, screwdriver as a chisel....etc.
* Don't pry or hammer with a file which may shatter, hammer on a file or use a file
without a handle.
* When using a file, grasp the handle in one hand and the toe of the file in the other
hand.
* Don't try to increase your leverage by using a “cheater” with a wrench. Wrenches
are designed at the right strength for their size and length.
* Follow the correct procedure for using every tool.
* Keep the tools sharp and in good condition, don't use broken, loose, cracked,
damaged tools or tools with worn tips or mushroomed heads which may cause
injuries.
* Do not use a tool if its handle has splinters, burrs, cracks or splits.
* Handle sharp-edged and pointed tools with care, always carry pointed tools by the
operator's side with the points and heavy ends down.
* When handing a tool to another person, direct sharp points and cutting edges away
from yourself and the other person.
* Never carry sharp or pointed hand tools in your pockets. Carry all sharp tools in a
sheath.
* Secure all small work & short work with a vise or clamp.
* Clean the tools and store proper storage place vertically, with the points and heavy
ends down after using them.
* Never place tools & materials where they hang on the edge of a bench, tools can
slip, fall from heights, or even be thrown by careless persons, causing severe
injuries.
* Pass a tool to another person by the handle, never toss it to them.
* Cut away from yourself when you use chisels and other edged tools.
* For hand protection use rubber gloves and don't work with oily or greasy hands.
* Clamp small work pieces in the vise and chip towards the stationary jaw when
working with a chisel.
* Keep control of saws by releasing downward pressure at the end of the stroke
when using a hacksaw. The adjustable blade of the hacksaw should be taut.
* Do not carry a saw by the blade.
* Do not use a bench vise that has worn or broken jaw inserts, or has cracks or
fractures in it's body.
* Don't force screws, make sure that the correct screw for the job is being used.
* Using the same tool in the same way all day long, day after day, can stress human
muscles and ligaments.
* Carpal tunnel syndrome and injuries to muscles, joints and ligaments are
increasingly common if the wrong tool is used, or the right tool is used improperly.
* Injury from continuous vibration can also cause numbness or poor circulation in
hands and arms.
* If anything breaks or malfunctions report it to your instructor at once.
* When using the drilling machine, hold the work piece rigidly to drill the correct
place, keep eyes from cutting chips, protect hand from rotating parts, and add
coolants when heating.
* Wear safety glasses for eye protection from flying chips metal, without use of them
may cause needless and permanent blindness. Do not continue to work if the safety
glasses become fogged.
* Respiratory equipment like face masks and valved respirators if necessary.
* Use ear protection equipments to protect from high noise.
 Observations / Remarks
To mark lines on the work piece clearly, it was applied some chalk on the surface.
When finding the centre of the nut to drill there were used two methods, one method is by
using odd leg caliper and drawing curves, the other method is by using surface gauge to
draw square and connect it’s diagonals.
When using the chisel the cutting angle was important for easy and correct cuttings,
where the cutting edge should be sharpened better. The cutting by using chisel and
hacksaw should be do outside of the marked lines. When cutting with hacksaw, it should
be in perpendicular axis to the surface of the work piece.
When using drilling machine to drill holes, it should be used coolants such as water
to avoid from damages to the drill bit by heating. Also the drill bit should be in a
perpendicular axis to the work piece for drilling vertical hole to thread.
When performing filling operation, the file should be in horizontal axis to the work
piece and more force should not be applied to get good finish.
When performing threading operation, the tap should be in perpendicular, and the
handles of the die should be in parallel to the work piece’s surface, otherwise the thread
cut with an inclination.
When riveting, it should be advance a sufficient length to rivet and riveted only the
bolt.
 References
 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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