AMPLITUDE MODULATION

TRANSMISSION
GROUP 1
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MODULATION?

 MODULATION is the basic requirement for transmitting

the message signal through free space.
 It is the process of transmission of information signal
(low frequency audio signal) using a high frequency
carrier signal.
 While the DEMODULATION is the reverse process
where the received signals are transformed back to
their original form.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 It is the process of changing the amplitude of a

relatively high frequency carrier signal in proportion
with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal
(information).
 The frequency of the carrier signal is usually much
greater than the highest frequency of the input
message signal.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
AM ENVELOPE

 The AM double-sideband full carrier (DSBFC) is

probably the most commonly used type of amplitude
modulation.
 The AM Envelope is the “shape” of the modulated
wave. The repetition rate of the envelope is equal to
the frequency of the modulating signal and that the
shape of the envelope is identical to the shape of the
modulating/message signal.
AM FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH

 The AM Spectrum extends from 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑐 +

𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) . Where 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency and 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
is the highest modulating signal frequency.
 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) is the lower sideband (LSF)
 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) is the upper sideband (USF)
AM FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF AN AM WAVE

 The phasors for the carrier and the upper and lower side frequencies all
rotates in counter-clockwise direction. However the upper side frequency
rotates faster than the carrier and the lower side frequency rotates
slower.
 That being said, if the phasor for the carrier is held stationary, the phasor
for the upper side frequency will continue to rotate in counter-clockwise
direction relative to the carrier, and the phasor for the lower side
frequency will rotate in a clockwise direction.
 Sometimes, phasors for the carrier and the side frequency may be in
phase (adding) or sometimes out of phase (subtracting).
COEFFICIENT OF MODULATION

 Is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change (modulation)

present in an AM waveform.
 Percent modulation is simply the coefficient of modulation stated as a
percentage.
 Specifically, gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the output
wave when the carrier is acted on by a modulating signal.

𝐸𝑚
𝑚=
𝐸𝑐
AM VOLTAGE AND POWER DISTRIBUTION

 FORMULA for Voltage Distribution

𝑚𝐸𝑐
 𝑣𝑎𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 +
2
𝑚𝐸𝑐
cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2

 FORMULA for Power Distribution

𝑚2 𝐸𝑐2
 𝑃𝑢𝑠𝑏 = 𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑏 =
4 2𝑅
𝑚2 𝑃𝑐
 𝑃𝑢𝑠𝑏 = 𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑏 =
4
AM CURRENT CALCULATION

 With amplitude modulation, it is very often necessary and

sometimes desirable to measure the current of the carrier and
modulated wave and then calculate the modulation index from
these measurements. It is measured by simply metering the
transmit antenna current with and without the presence of a
modulating signal.

𝑃𝑡 𝐼𝑡2 𝑅 𝐼𝑡2 𝑚2
= 2 = 2 =1+
𝑃𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝑅 𝐼𝑐 2
MODULATION BY A COMPLEX
INFORMATION SIGNAL
 Sometimes, modulating signal is often a complex waveform made up of
many sine waves with different amplitudes and frequencies. Such a wave
can be written as:

𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑡2
𝑃𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑡 = 𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑏𝑡 =
4
2
𝑚𝑡
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2

Where: 𝑚𝑡 = 𝑚12 + 𝑚22 + 𝑚𝑛2

AM MODULATING
CIRCUITS
LOW LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 It generates AM with small signals and must be amplified

before transmission.
 Advantage of low level AM Modulator is that less modulating
signal power is required to achieve a high percentage
modulation.
 But a disadvantage of this is that in high-power applications, it
requires all amplifiers that follow modulator stage to be linear
amplifiers, which is extremely inefficient.
EXAMPLE OF LOW LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 Low-Level AM: Diode Modulator

 Diode modulation consists of a resistive mixing network, a diode
rectifier, and an LC tuned circuit.
 The carrier is applied to one input resistor and modulating signal to
another input resistor.
 The resistive network causes the two signals to be linearly mixed (i.e.
algebraically added).
 A diode passes half cycles when forward biased
 The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange energy, causing an
oscillation or ringing at the resonant frequency.
EXAMPLE OF LOW LEVEL AM MODULATOR
EXAMPLE OF LOW LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 Low-Level AM: Transistor Modulator

 Transistor modulation consists of a resistive mixing network,
a diode rectifier, and an LC tuned circuit.
 The emitter-base junction of the transistor serves as a diode
and nonlinear device.
 Modulation and amplification occur as base current controls
a larger collector current.
 The LC tuned circuit oscillates (rings) to generate the missing
half cycle.
EXAMPLE OF LOW LEVEL AM MODULATOR
HIGH LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 It produces AM at high power levels, usually in the final

amplifier stage of a transmitter.
 It has the advantage that linear amplifiers are not required for
the RF amplification stages after AM modulation has been
applied.
 Requires a much higher amplitude modulating signal to achieve
a reasonable percent modulation, which is an obvious
disadvantage.
EXAMPLE OF HIGH LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 High-Level AM: Collector Modulator

 The collector modulator is a linear power amplifier that takes the
low-level modulating signals and amplifies them to a high-power
level.
 A modulating output signal is coupled through a modulation
transformer to a class C amplifier.
 The secondary winding of the modulation transformer is
connected in series with the collector supply voltage of the class
C amplifier.
EXAMPLE OF HIGH LEVEL AM MODULATOR
EXAMPLE OF HIGH LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 High-Level AM: Series Modulator

 A series modulator produces high-level modulation without a
large and expensive modulation transformer used in collector
modulators.
 It improves frequency response. It is, however, very inefficient.
 A series modulator replaces the modulation transformer with an
emitter follower.
 The modulating signal is applied to the emitter follower.
 The emitter follower is in series with the collector supply voltage.
The collector voltage changes with variations in the amplified
audio modulating signal.
EXAMPLE OF HIGH LEVEL AM MODULATOR
LINEAR INTEGRATED-
CIRCUIT AM
MODULATORS
LINEAR INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT

 Linear Integrated-circuit function generators use a unique

arrangement of transistors and FETs to perform signal multiplication,
which is a characteristic that makes them ideally suited for
generating AM waveforms.
 They offer excellent frequency stability, symmetrical modulation
characteristics, circuit miniaturization, fewer components,
temperature immunity and simplicity of design and troubleshooting.
 Their disadvantage though include low output power, a relatively
low usable frequency range and susceptibility to fluctuations in DC
power supply.
 MONOLITHIC FUNCTION GENERATOR

 The XR-2206 monolithic

function generator is ideally
suited for performing
amplitude modulation. It
consists of four functional
blocks: a voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO), an analog
multiplier and sineshaper, a
unity-gain buffer, and a set of
current switches.
AM TRANSMITTER
AM TRANSMITTER

 There are two approaches to generating an AM signal.

A low level AM transmitter performs the process of
modulation near the beginning of the transmitter. A
high level AM transmitter performs the modulation
step last, at the last or "final" amplifier stage in the
transmitter. Each method has advantages and
disadvantages, and both are in common use.
LOW-LEVEL AM TRANSMITTER
LOW-LEVEL AM TRANSMITTER

 BUFFER AMPLIFIER – is a relatively low-gain amplifier that follows the

oscillator. It has a constant input impedance (resistance). What it does is it
buffers or protects the oscillator by drawing the same amount of current from
the oscillator. This helps to prevent “pulling” of the oscillator frequency.
 MODULATOR – is a nonlinear amplifier, therefore it does not have a constant
input resistance - especially when information is passing into it. But since there
is a buffer amplifier between the oscillator and modulator, the oscillator sees a
steady load resistance, regardless of what the modulator stage is doing.
 VOLTAGE REGULATION – is especially important when a transmitter is being
powered by batteries. As a battery discharges, its terminal voltage falls. The
regulated voltage value is often between 5 and 9 volts; Zener diodes and three-
terminal regulator ICs are commonly used voltage regulators.
LOW-LEVEL AM TRANSMITTER

 AF VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER – In order for the modulator to function, it needs an

information signal. A microphone is one way of developing the intelligence
signal, however, it only produces a few millivolts of signal, hence a voltage
amplifier is used to boost the microphone's signal.
 RF POWER AMPLIFIER – In order to accurately amplify the tiny AM signal from
the modulator, the RF power amplifier stages must be linear. The RF power
amplifier is normally built with several stages. These stages increase both the
voltage and current of the AM signal. We say that power amplification occurs
when a circuit provides a current gain. RF power amplifier stages must be linear,
therefore Class A and Class B amplifier are used for they are linear amplifiers.
LOW-LEVEL AM TRANSMITTER

 ANTENNA COUPLER – is usually part of the last or final RF power amplifier, and
as such, is not really a separate active stage. It performs no amplification, and has
no active devices. It performs two important jobs: Impedance matching and
filtering.
HIGH-LEVEL AM TRANSMITTER
HIGH-LEVEL AM TRANSMITTER

 The high-level transmitter is very similar to the low-level unit. The RF section
begins just like the low-level transmitter; there is an oscillator and buffer
amplifier. The difference in the high level transmitter is where the modulation
takes place. Instead of adding modulation immediately after buffering, this type
of transmitter amplifies the unmodulated RF carrier signal first.
 The modulation process in a high-level transmitter takes place in the last or final
power amplifier. Because of this, an additional audio amplifier section is needed.
In order to modulate an amplifier that is running at power levels of several watts
(or more), comparable power levels of information are required.
 The final power amplifier does double-duty in a high-level transmitter. First, it
provides power gain for the RF carrier signal. In addition to providing power gain,
the final power amplifier also performs the task of modulation.
TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERN

 Whenever signals are fed to a non-linear device in an amplitude

modulated system, some of the signals mix due to nonlinearity and can
create unwanted frequencies that can produce interference. Hence,
nonlinearity causes interference.
 Trapezoid patterns are another method of showing the percentage of
modulation on the oscilloscope. It has one advantage over other patterns
– they show if the transmitter is linear. If the trapezoid shown on
oscilloscope is bowed inward (concave) or bowed outward (convex) this
indicates non-linearity.
TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERN
CARRIER SHIFT

 A condition that results from imperfect modulation in which the positive

and negative excursions of the modulating envelope are unequal in
amplitude.
 Carrier shift is also an indication of the average voltage of an AM
modulated signal.
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in which

two carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees (i.e. sine and cosine)
are modulated and combined. As a result of their 90° phase
difference they are in quadrature and this gives rise to the
name. Often one signal is called the In-phase or “I” signal, and
the other is the quadrature or “Q” signal.
 In view of the fact that both amplitude and phase variations are
present it may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude
and phase modulation.
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 Even though QAM is much more complex than conventional AM, costs
more to implement, and produces the same-quality demodulated signal;
it’s primary advantage is the conservation of bandwidth. QAM requires
only half as much bandwidth as conventional AM, and two separate
channels can modulate the same carrier.
 QAM is sometimes called phase-division multiplexing and was one of the
modulation techniques considered for stereo broadcasting of AM signals.
 Today, Quadrature AM is used almost exclusively for digital modulation of
analog carriers in data modems to convey data through public telephone
network. It is also used for digital satellite communications systems.