The Nervous System
By Janelle Liane V. Tabaldo
What is Nervous System?
One of the two main communication systems in
the body
Coordinates all the activities of the body carrying
messages from one cell to the next
Enables the body to respond and adapt to
changes that occur inside and outside the body
Basic structural unit is the NEURON or nerve cell
Functions of the Nervous System
Sensory input
Integration
Homeostasis
Mental activity
Control of muscles and
glands
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Central Nervous System
• Peripheral Nervous System
Divisions of the Nervous System
• Central Nervous System
-Consist of the brain and the
spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System
-Consist of the nerves and
ganglia
Central Nervous System
BRAIN – mass of nerve tissue protected
by membranes and skull
Regions of the Brain
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Brain stem
Cerebrum
Largest and highest section
Has convolutions (folds) that separates the lobes
4 lobes:
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
CEREBRUM: 4 LOBES
Responsible for
FRONTAL reasoning, planning,
movement, emotions
and problem solving
• Concerned with
movement, orientation,
PARIETAL recognition and
perception of stimuli
• (Integrates sensory
information)
Processing visual
information from the
OCCIPITAL
eyes (visual
processing)
Concerned with the
perception and recognition
TEMPORAL of auditory information
from the ears , memory
and speech
Frontal lobe
Links all components of behaviors
Impulse control
Injury here may cause lose of function
on one side of the body
Speech may become halted or
disorganized
Personality changes can occur
Social rules are disregarded
Sustained attention and “insight” are
affected
Temporal lobe
Perceives and recognizes verbal material
Most commonly injured
Causes misunderstandings in what is said
Emotional changes such as unexplained
panic or tearfulness can occur
Left temporal lobe involved in production of
speech, naming and verbal memory
Right temporal lobe involves musical
ability, foreign language, visual memory
and comprehension of the environment
Cerebral Cortex
Parietal lobe
Construction of language
Recall of long term memories may be mixed
up in time and sequencing
Easily lost or confused about left/right
Difficulty recognizing and naming what they
see
May affect ability to read, write or perform
calculations
Conscious sensation and voluntary movement
is affected
Injury to front part of the lobe may cause loss
of body sensation
Cerebellum
Occipital lobe
Injury usually results in
blindness to part or all of the
visual field
People may experience “blind
spots” or “holes”
May misperceive pictures
they see
Midbrain
Recognition of colors may be
Pons
distorted
Medulla
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
Somatic sensory area
– receives impulses
from the body’s sensory
receptors
Primary motor area –
sends impulses to
skeletal muscles
Broca’s area – involved
Pons
in our ability to speak
Medulla
Cerebellum
Belowcerebrum
Responsible for
muscle coordination,
balance and posture,
muscle tone
Diencephalon
Section between the
cerebrum and midbrain
Contains 2 structures
Thalamus – acts as a relay
center and directs sensory
impulses to the cerebrum
Hypothalamus – regulates
and control the autonomic
nervous system,
temperature, appetite, water
balance, sleep, etc. Also
involved in emotions such as
fear, anger, pleasure, pain
and affection
Brain Stem
The brain stem is a name for
the area of the brain between the
thalamus and spinal cord. The
brain stem includes the medulla,
pons and midbrain.
Midbrain
Below the cerebrum and top of the brain stem
Responsible for conducting impulses between brain
parts and certain eye and auditory reflexes
Pons
Below the midbrain and in the brain stem
Responsible for conducting messages to other parts
of the brain, chewing, tasting, saliva production and
assists with breathing
Medulla oblongata
Lowest part of the brain stem
Connects with the spinal cord and is responsible for
breathing, heartbeat, swallowing, coughing and blood
pressure
SPINAL CORD
Continues down from the
medulla oblongata
Ends at the first or second
lumbar vertebrae
Surrounded and protected
by vertebrae
Responsible for many reflex
actions and carrying afferent
and efferent nerves
Protection of the Central Nervous
System
Scalp and skin
Skull and vertebral column
Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood brain barrier
Meninges
3 membranes that cover and protect the brain and
spinal cord
Dura mater – outer layer
Arachnoid membrane – middle, delicate layer
Pia mater – attached to the brain and contains blood
vessels that nourish the nerve tissue
The Peripheral Nervous
System
• Nervous structures outside the brain and spinal
cord
• Nerves allow the CNS to receive information and
take action
• Functional components of the PNS
• Sensory inputs and motor outputs categorized as
somatic or visceral
• Sensory inputs also classified as general or special
Functional Classification of the
Peripheral Nervous System
Sensory (afferent) division
-Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
Motor (efferent) division
-Nerve fibers that carry impulses away
from the central nervous
Motor (efferent) division
Two subdivisions
Somatic nervous system = voluntary
Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
(Neuroglia or Glia)
Astrocytes
Abundant, star-shaped cells
Brace neurons
Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons
Control the chemical
environment of
the brain (CNS) the
chemical
environment of
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
Microglia (CNS)
Spider-like phagocytes
Dispose of debris
Ependymal cells (CNS)
Line cavities of the
brain and spinal cord
Circulate
cerebrospinal
fluid
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
Oligodendrocytes(CNS)
Produce myelin sheath
around nerve fibers in the
central nervous system
rain (CNS)
Neuroglia vs. Neurons
• Neuroglia divide.
• Neurons do not.
• Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
• Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia
cells, not the neurons.
• Consider the role of cell division in
cancer!
Support Cells of the PNS
Satellite cells
Protect neuron cell bodies
Schwann cells
Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous
system
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
f Neurons = nerve cells
Cells specialized to transmit messages
Major regions of neurons
Cell body – nucleus and metabolic
center of the cell
Processes – fibers that extend from the
cell body (dendrites and axonsS)
Neuron Anatomy
Cell body
Nucleus
Large nucleolus
vironmentof
the brain (CNS)
Neuron Anatomy
iExtensions outside
the cell body
Dendrites – conduct
impulses toward the
cell body
Axons – conduct
impulses away from
the cell body (only 1!)
environment of
the brain (CNS)
Neuron Anatomy
Axons and Nerve Impulses
Axons end in axonal terminals
Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
neurons
Synapse – junction between nerves
Nerve Fiber Coverings
Schwann cells – produce
myelin sheaths in jelly-roll
like fashion
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in
myelin sheath along the axon
Neuron Cell Body Location
Most are found in the central nervous
system
Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated
fibers
Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the
white matter of the central nervous system
Ganglia – collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system
Functional Classification of
Neurons
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
Cutaneous sense organs
Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
Motor (efferent) neurons
Carry impulses from the central nervous
system
r
Functional Classification of
Neurons
chemical
environment of
thInterneurons (association neurons)
Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
Connect sensory and motor neurons
e brain (CNS)
Neuron Classification
chemical
environment of
the brain (CNS)
Structural Classification of
Neurons
- Multipolar neurons
-Bipolar neurons
-Unipolar neurons
rain (CNS)
chemical
Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell
body
the brain (CNS)
chemical
fBipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
the brain (CNS)
chemical
environment of
Unipolar neurons – have a short single process
leaving the cell body
CNS)
How Neurons Function
vIrritability – ability to respond to stimuli
Conductivity – ability to transmit an
impulse
The plasma membrane at rest is
polarized
Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell
ironment of
the brain (CNS)
Starting a Nerve Impulse
bDepolarization – a
stimulus depolarizes the
neuron’s membrane
A depolarized membrane
allows sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
The exchange of ions
initiates an action potential
in the neuron
rain (CNS)
The Action Potential
If the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon
Potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
The sodium-potassium pump restores the
original configuration
This action requires ATP
Nerve Impulse Propagation
The impulse
continues to move
toward the cell body
Impulses travel faster
when fibers have a
myelin sheath
Nerve Impulse between Neurons
nImpulses are able to cross the synapse
to another nerve
Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s
axon terminal
The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
An action potential is started in the dendrite
(CNS)
How Neurons Communicate at
Synapses
chemical
environment of
the brain (CNS)
The Reflex Arc
Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary
responses to stimuli
Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to
an interneuron, to an effector
n (CNS)
Simple Reflex Arc
Types of Reflexes and
Regulation
(Autonomic reflexes
Smooth muscle regulation
Heart and blood pressure regulation
Regulation of glands
Digestive system regulation
Somatic reflexes
Activation of skeletal muscles
Diseases/disorders
Traumatic disorders – caused by injury:
Concussion.
Brain contusion.
Congenital disorders – present at birth:
Spina bifida.
Hydrocephalus.
Cerebral palsy.
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA).
Encephalitis.
Epilepsy.
Meningitis.
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Neuralgia.
Paralysis.
Parkinson’s disease.
Dementia.
Alzheimer’s disease.
Spina Bifida
Opening in the spinal column
At delivery, spinal cord and nerves are exposed
causing nerve damage
Results in paralysis
Cerebral Palsy
Caused by brain damage at birth
Lack of oxygen, birth injuries, infection, etc.
Symptoms:
Tense muscles leading to
contractures
Tremors
Mental retardation
Treatment:
Therapy, anticonvulsants, braces, surgery
Cerebrovascular accident(CVA)
a.k.a. stroke
Blood flow to the brain is impaired
resulting in brain tissue damage
Causes
Cerebral hemorrhage
Aneurysm
Weak blood vessels
Blood clot
Treatment depends on cause
Encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain resulting in
weakness, visual disturbances, vomiting, stiff
neck and back, coma
Caused
Virus
Chemical
Bacteria
Treatment is supportive including medications
and monitoring
Epilepsy
Seizure syndrome
Disorder associated with abnormal electrical
impulses in the neurons of the brain
Causes
Trauma
Toxins
Idiopathic (spontaneous)
Treated with medications
Hydrocephalus
Excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the
ventricles
Symptoms include abnormally large head, prominent
forehead, irritability, retardation
Treated with
surgical shunt
between ventricles
Meningitis
Inflammation of the meninges of the
brain and/or spinal cord
Caused by bacteria or virus
High fever, headaches, back and
neck pain, n/v, delirium,
convulsions and death
Treatment includes medications
and anticonvulsants
Multiple sclerosis
Chronic, progressive
disabling condition resulting
from degeneration of the
myelin sheath
Occurs between 20 and 40
y.o.
Cause is unknown
Progresses at different rates
depending on the person
No cure
Neuralgia
Nerve pain
Caused by inflammation, pressure,
toxins and other disease
Treatment directed at eliminating the
cause of the pain
Paralysis
Usually results from brain or
spinal cord injury
Hemiplegia
Paralysis on one side
Quadriplegia
Paralysis
of the arms, legs, and body
below the spinal cord injury
No cure, treatment is supportive
Parkinson’s disease
Chronic, progressive
degeneration of brain cells
usually in people over 50 y.o.
Tremors, stiffness, muscular
rigidity, forward leaning position,
shuffling gait, mood swings, etc.
Treatment is supportive and
symptomatic
Shingles
Herpes zoster
Inflammation of nerve cells caused by
herpes virus
Same virus that causes chicken pox
Occurs in thoracic area on one side of
the body and follow path of affected
nerves
Itching, fever, increased skin
sensitivity
Treatment is to relieve pain and
itching until inflammation subsides
Dementia
General term defining a loss in
at least two areas of complex
behavior such as language,
memory, visual/spatial abilities
or judgment
Does not mean that everyone
that is forgetful has dementia
Alzheimer’s disease
Progressive disease where initial symptom is
usually a problem with remembering recently
learning information
Nerve endings in the cortex of the brain
degenerate and block signals
Cause is unknown and has 3 stages:
1st stage lasts 2-4 years and involves short-term
memory loss, anxiety and poor judgment
2nd stage lasts 2-10 years and increases memory
loss, difficulty recognizing people, motor problems,
loss of social skills
3rd stage lasts 1-3 years and includes inability to
recognize self, weight loss, seizures, mood swings,
and aphasia (loss of speech).