UNIT IV

DIGITAL

ELECTRONICS

1
 Boolean Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for

the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,”
1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and
NOT.

2
 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean operator can be

completely described using a
truth table.
• The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown at the right.
• The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.

3
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
• The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar. It is sometimes
indicated by a prime mark
( ‘ ) or an “elbow” ().

4
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean function has:

• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
• It produces an output that is also a member of
the set {0,1}.

Now you know why the binary numbering

system is so handy in digital systems.

5
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Digital computers contain circuits that implement

Boolean functions.
• The simpler that we can make a Boolean function,
the smaller the circuit that will result.
– Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less
power, and run faster than complex circuits.
• With this in mind, we always want to reduce our
Boolean functions to their simplest form.
• There are a number of Boolean identities that help
us to do this.

6
 3.3 Logic Gates

• We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract

terms.
• In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
– In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital
designers think of them as a single unit.
– Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.

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 3.3 Logic Gates

• The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

• They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.
8
 3.3 Logic Gates

• Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR

(XOR) gate.
• The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol 

for the XOR operation.

9
 3.3 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are two very
important gates.
Their symbols and
truth tables are
shown at the right.

10
 3.3 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are known as
universal gates
because they are
inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.

11
 3.3 Logic Gates

• Gates can have multiple inputs and more than

one output.
– A second output can be provided for the complement
of the operation.
– We’ll see more of this later.

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Combinational circuits are defined as the time independent circuits which do 

not depends upon previous inputs to generate any output are termed as 

combinational circuits. 

Sequential circuits are those which are dependent on clock cycles and depends 

on present as well as past inputs to generate any output.

13
14
 Combinational Logic Circuits Sequential Logic Circuits
Output is a function of clock, present 
Output is a function of the present inputs 
inputs and the previous states of the 
(Time Independent Logic).
system.
Have memory to store the present states 
Do not have the ability to store data (state). that is sent as control input (enable) for the 
next operation.
It does not require any feedback. It simply  It involves feedback from output to input 
outputs the input according to the logic  that is stored in the memory for the next 
designed. operation.
Used mainly for Arithmetic and Boolean  Used for storing data (and hence used in 
operations. RAM).
Logic gates are the elementary building  Flip flops (binary storage device) are the 
blocks. elementary building unit.
Independent of clock and hence does not  Clocked (Triggered for operation with 
require triggering to operate. electronic pulses).
Example: Counter [Previous O/P 
Example: Adder [1+0=1; Dependency only 
+1=Current O/P; Dependency on present 
on present inputs i.e., 1 and 0].
input as well as previous state].
15
HALF ADDER

&

FULL ADDER

16
 An adder is a digital logic circuit in electronics that implements addition of

numbers. In many computers and other types of processors, adders are used to

calculate addresses, similar operations and table indices in the ALU and also in other

parts of the processors. These can be built for many numerical representations like

excess-3 or binary coded decimal. Adders are classified into two types: half adder and

full adder. The half adder circuit has two inputs: A and B, which add two input digits

and generate a carry and sum. The full adder circuit has three inputs: A and C, which

add the three input numbers and generate a carry and sum. This article gives brief

information about half adder and full adder in tabular forms and circuit diagrams. 17
 An adder is a digital circuit that performs addition of numbers. The half

adder adds two binary digits called as augend and addend and produces two outputs

as sum and carry; XOR is applied to both inputs to produce sum and AND gate is

applied to both inputs to produce carry. The full adder adds 3 one bit numbers, where

two can be referred to as operands and one can be referred to as bit carried in. And
Full Adder
produces 2-bit output, and these can be referred to as output carry and sum.
This adder is difficult to implement than a half-adder. The difference between a half-adder

and a full-adder is that the full-adder has three inputs and two outputs, whereas half

adder has only two inputs and two outputs. The first two inputs are A and B and the third

input is an input carry as C-IN. When a full-adder logic is designed, you string eight of them
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19
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• As we see, the sum can be

found using the XOR
operation and the carry
using the AND operation.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• We can change our half

adder into to a full adder
by including gates for
processing the carry bit.
• The truth table for a full
adder is shown at the
right.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• How can we change the

half adder shown below
to make it a full adder?

22
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Here’s our completed full adder.

23
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Just as we combined half adders to make a full

adder, full adders can connected in series.
• The carry bit “ripples” from one adder to the next;
hence, this configuration is called a ripple-carry
adder.

Today’s systems employ more efficient adders.

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ENCODER

&

DECODER

25
 An Encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of

Decoder. It has maximum of 2n input lines and ‘n’ output lines. It will produce a binary

code equivalent to the input, which is active High. Therefore, the encoder encodes

2n input lines with ‘n’ bits. It is optional to represent the enable signal in encoders.

26
4 : 2 Encoder

The 4 to 2 Encoder consists of four inputs Y3, Y2, Y1 & Y0 and two outputs A1

& A0. At any time, only one of these 4 inputs can be ‘1’ in order to get the respective

binary code at the output. The figure below shows the logic symbol of 4 to 2 encoder :

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The Truth table of 4 to 2 encoder is as follows :

Logical expression for A1 and A0 :

A1 = Y3 + Y2

A0 = Y3 + Y1

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The above two Boolean functions A1 and A0 can be implemented using two

input OR gates :

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8 : 3 Encoder (Octal to Binary) –

The 8 to 3 Encoder or octal to Binary encoder consists of 8 inputs : Y7 to Y0 

and 3 outputs : A2, A1 & A0. Each input line corresponds to each octal digit 

and three outputs generate corresponding binary code.

The figure below shows the logic symbol of octal to binary encoder:

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The truth table for 8 to 3 encoder is as follows :

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 Logical expression for A2, A1 and A0 :

A2 = Y7 + Y6 + Y5 + Y4

A1 = Y7 + Y6 + Y3 + Y2

A0 = Y7 + Y5 + Y3 + Y1
The above two Boolean functions A2, A1 and A0 can be implemented using four input 

OR gates :

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Decimal to BCD Encoder –

The  decimal  to  binary  encoder  usually  consists  of 10 input lines and 4 output

lines.  Each  input  line  corresponds  to  the  each  decimal  digit  and  4  outputs 

correspond to the BCD code. This encoder accepts the decoded decimal data as 

an input and encodes it to the BCD output which is available on the output lines. 

The figure below shows the logic symbol of decimal to BCD encoder :

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34
35
36
37
A decoder does the opposite job of an encoder. It is a combinational circuit that 

converts n lines of input into 2n lines of output.
Let’s take an example of 3-to-8 line decoder.

38
39
HENCE

40
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Decoders are another important type of

combinational circuit.
• Among other things, they are useful in selecting a
memory location according a binary value placed
on the address lines of a memory bus.
• Address decoders with n inputs can select any of 2n
locations.
This is a block
diagram for a
decoder.

41
 MULTIPLEXUR

&

DEMULTIPLEXUR

42
 In the large-scale-digital systems, a single line is required to carry on two 

or more digital signals – and, of course! At a time, one signal can be placed on the 

one line. But, what is required is a device that will allow us to select; and, the signal 

we wish to place on a common line, such a circuit is referred to as multiplexer.

The function of a multiplexer is to select the input of any ‘n’ input lines and 

feed  that  to  one  output  line.  The  function  of  a  de-multiplexer  is  to  inverse  the 

function  of  the  multiplexer  and  the  shortcut  forms  of  the  multiplexer.  The  de-

multiplexers are mux and demux. Some multiplexers perform both multiplexing and 
43
44
 A  multiplexer  is  a  circuit  that  accept  many  input  but  give  only  one 

output. A demultiplexer function exactly in the reverse of  a multiplexer, that is 

a  demultiplexer  accepts  only  one  input  and  gives  many  outputs.  Generally 

multiplexer and demultiplexer are used together, because of the communication 
Mutliplexer:
systems are bi directional.
Multiplexer means many into one. A multiplexer is a circuit used to 

select and route any one of the several input signals to a signal output. An 

simple example of an non electronic circuit of a multiplexer is a single pole 

45
multiposition switch.
Multiposition switches are widely used in many electronics circuits. However 

circuits that operate at high speed require the multiplexer to be automatically 

selected. A mechanical switch cannot perform this task satisfactorily. 

Therefore, multiplexer used to perform high speed switching are constructed 
Multiplexer handle two type of data that is analog and digital. For analog 
of electronic components.
application,  multiplexer  are  built  of  relays  and  transistor  switches.  For  digital 

application,  they  are  built  from  standard  logic  [Link]  multiplexer  used  for 

digital applications, also called digital multiplexer, is a circuit with many input but 

only one output. By applying control signals, we can steer any input to the output.  46
Following figure shows the general idea of a multiplexer with n input signal, m 

control signals and one output signal.

47
four input bits are D0,D1,D2 and D3. only one of this is transmitted to the output y.

The output depends on the value of AB which is the control input. The control input

determines which of the input data bit is transmitted to the output.

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Applications of Multiplexer:

Multiplexer are used in various fields where multiple data need to be transmitted 

using a single line. 

Communication system – Communication system is a set of system that enable 

communication like transmission system, relay and tributary station, and 

communication network. The efficiency of communication system can be increased 

considerably using multiplexer. Multiplexer allow the process of transmitting 

different type of data such as audio, video at the same time using a single 

transmission line. 49
Telephone network – In telephone network, multiple audio signals are integrated 

on a single line for transmission with the help of multiplexers. In this way, 

multiple audio signals can be isolated and eventually, the desire audio signals 

reach the intended recipients.

Computer memory – Multiplexers are used to implement huge amount of 

memory into the computer, at the same time reduces the number of copper lines 

required to connect the memory to other parts of the computer circuit.

Transmission from the computer system of a satellite – Multiplexer can be 

50
Demultiplexer:

Demultiplexer means one to many. A demultiplexer is a circuit with one input 

and many output. By applying control signal, we can steer any input to the 

output. Few types of demultiplexer are 1-to 2, 1-to-4, 1-to-8 and 1-to 16 

demultiplexer.

Following figure illustrate the general idea of a demultiplexer with 1 input 

signal, m control signals, and n output signals.

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Understanding 1- to-4 Demultiplexer:

The 1-to-4 demultiplexer has 1 input bit, 2 control bit, and 4 output bits. An 

example of 1-to-4 demultiplexer is IC 74155. The 1-to-4 demultiplexer is shown 

in figure below

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53
The input bit is labelled as Data D. This data bit is transmitted to the data bit of the 

output lines. This depends on the value of AB, the control input.

When AB = 01, the upper second AND gate is enabled while other AND gates are 

disabled. Therefore, only data bit D is transmitted to the output, giving Y1 = Data.

If D is low, Y1 is low. IF D is high,Y1 is high. The value of Y1 depends upon the 

value of D. All other outputs are in low state.

If the control input is changed to AB = 10, all the gates are disabled except the third 

AND gate from the top. Then, D is transmitted only to the Y2 output, and Y2 = 
54
APPLICATIONS

Demultiplexer   is  used  to  connect  a  single  source  to  multiple  destinations.  The 

main  application  area  of  demultiplexer  is  communication  system  where 

multiplexer  are  used.  Most  of  the  communication  system  are  bidirectional   i.e. 

they function in both ways (transmitting and receiving signals). Hence, for most of 

the  applications,  the  multiplexer  and  demultiplexer  work  in  sync.  Demultiplexer 

are also used for reconstruction  of parallel data and ALU circuits.

Communication System
55
 Multiplexur & Demultiplexur types

2-1 multiplexer ( 1select line)
4-1 multiplexer (2 select lines)
8-1 multiplexer(3 select lines)
16-1 multiplexer (4 select lines)

Vice versa for demultiplexur

56
8-1 multiplexer

(3 select lines)

57
58
59
FLIP FLOP

60
 A  flip  flop  is  an  electronic  circuit  with  two  stable  states  that  can  be 

used to store binary data. The stored data can be changed by applying varying 

inputs.  Flip-flops  and  latches  are  fundamental  building  blocks  of  digital 

electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types 

of  systems.  Flip-flops  and  latches  are  used  as data storage elements.  It  is  the 

Flip flop v/s Latch

basic storage element in sequential logic.

The basic difference between a latch and a flip-flop is a gating or clocking

mechanism
61
Clock
• It is usually derived from an oscillator or other circuitry 
that alternates its output between 1 and 0
• It is used to synchronize the flow of data in a digital 
system

62
 S-R Flip Flop
S R Q Q’

0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 ∞ ∞

In this circuit diagram, the output is changed (i.e. the stored data is 

changed) only when you give an active clock signal. Otherwise, even if the 

S or R is active the data will not change. Let’s look at the types of flip-flops  63
 There are majorly 4 types of flip flops, with the most common one 

being SR flip flop. This simple flip flop circuit has a set input (S) and a reset 

input (R). In this circuit when you Set “S” as active the output “Q” would be 

high and “Q‘‘” will be low. Once the outputs are established, the wiring of the 

circuit is maintained until “S” or “R” go high, or power is turned off. As shown 

above, it is the simplest and the easiest to understand. The two outputs, as 

shown above, are the inverse of each other. The truth table of SR Flip Flop is 

highlighted below. 64
JK Flip-flop

Due to the undefined state in the SR flip flop, another flip flop is 

required in electronics. The JK flip flop is an improvement on the SR flip flop 
J K Q Q’
0 0 0 0
where S=R=1 is not a problem.
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0

65
 The input condition of J=K=1, gives an output inverting the output state. 

However, the outputs are the same when one tests the circuit practically.

In simple words, If J and K data input are different (i.e. high and low) then 

the output Q takes the value of J at the next clock edge. If J and K are both low 

then no change occurs. If J and K are both high at the clock edge then the output 

will toggle from one state to the other. JK Flip Flop can function as Set or Reset 

Flip flop

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D Flip Flop

D flip flop is a better alternative that is very popular with digital 

electronics. They are commonly used for counters and shift-registers and input 

synchronisation.

Clock D Q Q’

↓»0 0 0 1

↑»1 0 0 1

↓»0 1 0 1

↑»1 1 1 0
67
 In a D flip flop, the output can be only changed at the clock edge, and if 

the input changes at other times, the output will be unaffected. The change of 

state of the output is dependent on the rising edge of the clock. The output (Q) is 

same as the input and can only change at the rising edge of the clock.

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T Flip Flop

A T flip flop is like JK flip-flop. These are basically a single input 

version of JK flip flop. This modified form of JK flip-flop is obtained by 

connecting both inputs J and K together. This flip-flop has only one input along 

with the clock input. These flip-flops are called T flip-flops because of their 

ability to complement its state (i.e.) Toggle, hence the name Toggle flip-flop.

69
T Q Q (t+1)

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0
70
Applications of Flip-Flops

These are the various types of flip-flops being used in digital electronic circuits 

and the applications of Flip-flops are as specified below.

Counters
Frequency Dividers
Shift Registers
Storage Registers
71
COUNTER

72
 Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number 

of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a 

clock signal. Counters are used in digital electronics for counting purpose, they 

can count specific event happening in the circuit. For example, in UP counter a 

counter increases count for every rising edge of clock. Not only counting, a 

counter can follow the certain sequence based on our design like any random 

sequence 0,1,3,2… .They can also  be designed with the help of flip flops. 

Counters are broadly divided into two categories 
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Asynchronous Counter

In asynchronous counter we don’t use universal clock, only first flip 

flop is driven by main clock and the clock input of rest of the following counters 

is driven by output of previous flip flops. We can understand it by following 

diagram-

74
It is evident from timing diagram that Q0 is changing as soon as the rising edge of clock pulse is 

encountered, Q1 is changing when rising edge of Q0 is encountered(because Q0 is like clock pulse for 

75
second flip flop) and so on. In this way ripples are generated through Q0,Q1,Q2,Q3 hence it is also 
Synchronous Counter

Unlike the asynchronous counter, synchronous counter has one global 

clock which drives each flip flop so output changes in parallel. The one 

advantage of synchronous counter over asynchronous counter is, it can operate 

on higher frequency than asynchronous counter as it does not have cumulative 

delay because of same clock is given to each flip flop.

76
From circuit diagram we see that Q0 bit gives response to each falling edge of clock while 

Q1 is dependent on Q0, Q2 is dependent on Q1 and Q0 , Q3 is dependent on Q2,Q1 and Q0.77
 Flip flops can be used to store a single bit of binary data (1or 0). 

However, in order to store multiple bits of data, we need multiple flip flops. N flip 

flops are to be connected in an order to store n bits of data. A Register is a device 

which is used to store such information. It is a group of flip flops connected in 

series used to store multiple bits of data. 

The information stored within these registers can be transferred with the 

help of shift registers. Shift Register is a group of flip flops used to store multiple 

bits  of  data.  The  bits  stored  in  such  registers  can  be  made  to  move  within  the 
78
The registers which will shift the bits to left are called

 “Shift left registers”.

The registers which will shift the bits to right are called 

“Shift right registers”.

Shift registers are basically of 4 types. These are:

[Link] In parallel Out shift register
[Link] In Serial Out shift register
[Link] In Serial Out shift register 79
Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register (SISO)

Serial-In Parallel-Out shift Register (SIPO)

80
Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register (PISO)

81
Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register (PIPO)

82