Chapter 7

Fetal Growth and

Development

인제대힉교 부산백병원
산부인과학 교실
R1 서 영진
The maternal organism responds passively to
signals emanating from embronic-fetal and
extraembryonic tissues
The conceptus is the dynamic force in the
pregnancy
Essential for successful pregnancy
-implantation, maternal recognition of
pregnancy, immunological acceptance,
endocrine function, nutrition, parturition
Determination of gestational age(1)

Gestational age (or menstrual age)

from the 1st day of the last menstrual period
:2 weeks before ovulation & fertilization
3 weeks before implantation of the blastocyte
Ovulation age
:the time of ovulation
Postconceptional age
:the time of conception-nearly identical
Determination of gestational age(2)

Calculate gestational age

:the 1st day of the LMP~the birth of the fetus
:280 days=40 weeks=9 1/3 calendar months
(10 units of 28 days)
A quick estimate of the EDC
:LMP +7 days
-3 months
Trimester
:3 units of 3 calendar months each
 Morphological growth(1)

Ovum, zygote, and blastocyst

:during the first 2 weeks after ovulation
 Morphological growth(2)

Embryo
(the 3rd weeks after fertilization)
-most pregnant test: hCG (+)
-embryonic disc: well defined
-chorionic sac: 1 cm
·The end of the 4th week
-embryo: 4~5 mm
-chorionic sac: 2~3 cm
-primitive heart (the middle oh the 4th week)
-arm & leg buds
-amnion is beginning
 Morphological growth(3)

·The end of the 6th week

-embryo: 22~24mm
-head > trunk
-heart : completely formed
-fingers & toes
-the arms bend at the elbow
-upper lip
-external ears
 Morphological growth(4)

Fetus
(occur 8th weeks after fertilization)
-the embryo-fetus: nearly 4 cm
-the major portion of lung

·12 gestational weeks

-uterus: palpable above the symphysis pubis
-crown-rump length (CRL): 6~7 cm
-center of ossification
-fingers & toes: differentiated
-skin & nails: developed
-external genitalia: beginning
-spontaneous movement
 Morphological growth(5)
·14 gestational weeks
-gender can be correctly determined

·20 gestational weeks

-skin:less transparent, lanugo covers
-scalp hair

·24 gestational weeks

-skin: wrinkled, fat deposition
-eyebrows, eyelashes
-the bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar duct
(the terminal sac required for gas change has not yet formed)
 Morphological growth(6)

·28 gestational weeks

-skin: red & covered with vernix caseosa
-moves energetically, cries weakly
-90% chance of intact survival
·36 gestational weeks
-skin: rotund
-excellent chance of intact suvival

·40 gestational weeks

-fully developed
 Morphological growth(7)

Length of fetus
-crown-rump height: the variability in the length of
the legs and the difficulty of maintaining them in
extension

-the length is a more accurate criterion of

gestational age than weight
 Morphological growth(8)

Weight of the newborn

-boys > girls (100g, 3 oz)

-depend on race, parental economic status, size of

the parents, parity of the mother, and altitude

-the second half of pregnancy ~ the 37th week

:increases in a linear manner
Morphological growth(9)
Morphological growth(10)
 Morphological growth(11)

Molding
-the bones of the cranium are normally connected
only by a thin layer of fibrous tissue which allows
considerable shifting or sliding of each bone to
accommodate the size and shape of the maternal
pelvis

-the location of these fontanels gives important

information concerning the presentation and
position of the fetus
 Morphological growth(12)

Fetal brain
-myelination of the ventral roots of the cerebrospinal
nerves and brain stem: begins at 6 months

-the major portion of myelination: after birth

The fetal-maternal communication
system: placental arm(1)
Mother→fetus: oxygen, nutrient
Fetus→mother: carbon dioxide, metabolic wastes

Maternal blood: in the intervillous space

Fetal blood: in the fetal capillaries in the intravillous
space of chorionic villi
no direct communications between
the fetal blood

As lung, gastrointestinal tract, kidney

 The fetal-maternal communication
system: placental arm(2)
The intervillous space: maternal blood

-the residual volume of the intervillous space of the

term placenta: 140ml

-the normal volume of the intervillous space before

delivery: 280ml

-uteroplacental blood flow near term: 700~900ml/min

-blood pressure of intervillous spac <uterine arterial pressure

>uterine venous pressure

- uterine venous pressure↑: intervillous space pressure↑

(supine, standing position)
 The fetal-maternal communication
system: placental arm(3)
Fetal capillaries of the intrevillous space: fetal blood

-during normal labor, the rise in fetal blood pressure must be

parallel to the pressure in the amnionic fluid and the
intervillous space

-otherwise, the capillaries in the chirionic villi would collapse

 Placental transfer(1)
Chorionic villus
-the pathway from mother to fetus
(1) syncytiotrophoblast
(2) stroma of the intravillous space
(3) fetal capillary wall
-after midpregnancy
(1)Langhans cell, cytotrophoblast ↓
(2)villous epithelium : syncytiotrophoblast
(3)villous capillary : thinner
(4)fetal vessel increase
-total surface area of chorionic villi : 10 m2
→correlation with fetal weight
 Placental transfer(2)

Regulation of placental transfer

-the concentration of the substance in the maternal plasma,
which it is bound to another compound, such as carrier protein

-the rate of maternal blood flow through the intervillous space

-the area available for exchange across the villous trophoblast

epithelium

-the physical properties of the tissue barrier (ex. diffusion)

-the capacity of the biochemical machinery of the placenta for

effecting active transfer (ex. specific receptor)
 Placental transfer(3)
-the amount of the substance metabolized by the placenta
during transfer

-the area for exchange across the fetal capillaries in the

placenta

-the concentration of the substance in the fetal blood

-specific binding or carrier proteins in the fetal or maternal

circulation

-the rate of fetal blood flow through the villus capillaries

 Placental transfer(4)

Mechanism of transfer
-molecular weight is clearly important in determining
the rate of transfer by diffusion
-the smaller, the more rapid

-simple difussion: oxygen, carbon dioxide, water,

and most(but not all) electrolyte
-slow rate: insulin, steroid, thyroid hormone
-high molecular weight, but transverse: Ig G
(specific receptor)
 Placental transfer(5)
Transfer of oxygen & carbon dioxide
-the placeta served as the lung

-carbon dioxide: diffusion limited

oxygen: blood-flow limited

-8mL O2 /min/ kg of fetal weight

but, store for only 1 to 2 min
so, this supply must be continuous
 Placental transfer(6)
-oxygen saturation of intervillous space: 65 ~75%
partial pressure: 30 ~35 mmHg
-the fetus normally does not suffer from lack of O2
cardiac output: greater
oxygen-carrying capacity of fetal Hb: high
Hb concenturation; high

-carbon dioxide: more rapidly by diffusion

fetal blood has less affinity
 Placental transfer(7)
Selective transfer and facilitated diffusion
-ascorbic acid : simple diffusion
-iron : unidirectional treasfer
-infection: viruses, bacteria, and protozoa
(rubella, varicella, CMV, HIV, treponeme
tuberculosis)
-rarely, malignant cell
 Nutrition of the fetus(1)
-because of the small amount of york, development
is dependent on nutrients obtained from the mother
-so, indigested foodstuff is translated into storage
forms: liver, muscle, adipose tissue
-glucose→glycogen in liver & muscle
amino acis: protein
storage of the excess as fat: peaks in 2nd trimester
-during fasting: glycogen, adipose tissue(fatty acid)
(by glucagon, norepinephrine, hPL,
glucocorticosteroid, thyroxine)
 Nutrition of the fetus(2)
glucose and fetal growth
-gucose is a major nutrient for fetal growth & energy
-hPL: promote the mobilization and use of fatty acid
blocks the peripheral uptakes and use
of glucose
glucose transport
-by a carrier mediated, stereoapecific, nonconcen-
trating process of facilitated diffusion
 Nutrition of the fetus(3)
glucose transport protein
-six separate glucose transport protein (GLUT) have
been discovered
-GLUT-1 & GLUT-3 in plasma membrane(microvilli)
of syncytiotrophoblsst

glucose, insulin, and fetal macrosomia

-hyperinsulinemia, IGF-1, IGFBP-3, FGF-2,
increased GLUT protein expression: macrosomia
 Nutrition of the fetus(4)
free fatty acids and triglycerides
-triacylglycerols does not cross the placenta
but, grycerol does
-most fatty acids cross the placenta by simple
diffusion
-the apoprotein and cholesterol ester of LDLare
hydrolyzed by lysosomal enzyme in the syncytium
to give:cholesterol for progesterone stnthesis
free amino acid-including essential amino acids
essential fatty acids, primarily linoleic acid
 Nutrition of the fetus(5)
Amino acids
-in addition to the hydrolysis of LDL, the placenta is
known to concentrate a large number of amino
acids intracellularly

Proteins
-Ig G: Fc receptor on trophoblast, cross the placenta
same concentration in cord & maternal area
-Ig M: increase-fetal infection (immune system)
 Nutrition of the fetus(6)
Ions and trace metals
-iodide transport across the placenta
carrier mediated, energy-requiring avtive process

-zinc : fetus > mother

-copper : fetus < mother

 Nutrition of the fetus(7)
Placental sequestration of heavy metals
-metallothionein-1: heavy metal binding protein
(zinc, copper, lead, cadmium)

-smoker: cadmium ↑- metallothionein↑ - copper

binding – pseudo copper deficiency
→collagen ↓ :rupture of membrane
 Nutrition of the fetus(8)
Calcium and phosphorus
-actively transported from mother to fetus

-PTH-rP:fetal parathyroid, placenta, tissue, decidua,

myometrium
adenyl cyclase activation
calcium movement
 Nutrition of the fetus(9)
Vitamins
-Vit. A (retinol): fetus > mother
bound retinol-binding protein
across the syncytium
-Vit. C(ascorbic acid): energy dependent
carrier mediated

-Vit. D(cholecalciferol) : fetus < mother