Thermodynamics

Lecture 12
Refrigeration Cycle
FUNDAMENTALS OF
REFRIGERATION
• Refrigeration is the science of producing and
maintaining temperatures below that of the
surrounding atmosphere.
• This means the removing of heat from a
substance to be cooled.
• Heat always passes downhill, from a warm
body to a cooler one, until both bodies are at
the same temperature.
FUNDAMENTALS OF
REFRIGERATION
• Maintaining perishables at their required
temperatures is done by refrigeration.
• Not only perishables but to-day many human
work spaces in offices and factory buildings
are air conditioned and a refrigeration unit is
the heart of the system.
• In simple, refrigeration means the cooling of
or removal of heat from a system.
• The equipment employed to maintain the
system at a low temperature is termed as
refrigerating system and the system which is
kept at lower temperature is called
refrigerated system.
• Refrigeration is generally produced in one of
the following three ways…..
(i) By melting of a solid.
(ii) By sublimation of a solid.
(iii) By evaporation of a liquid.

• Most of the commercial refrigeration is

produced by the evaporation of a liquid
called refrigerant
 Elements of Refrigeration
Systems
• All refrigeration systems must include at least four basic
units as given below :
(i) A low temperature thermal “sink” to which heat will flow
from the space to be cooled.
(ii) Means of extracting energy from the sink, raising the
temperature level of this energy, and delivering it to a heat
receiver.
(iii) A receiver to which heat will be transferred from the
high temperature high-pressure refrigerant.
(iv) Means of reducing of pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant as it returns from the receiver to the “sink”.
Refrigeration Systems

• The various refrigeration systems may be

enumerated as below :
1. Ice refrigeration
2. Air refrigeration system
3. Vapour compression refrigeration system
4. Vapour absorption refrigeration system
Co-efficient of Performance
(C.O.P.)
• The performance of a refrigeration system is
expressed by a term known as the ‘‘co-
efficient of performance’’, which is defined
as the ratio of heat absorbed by the
refrigerant while passing through the
evaporator to the work input required to
compress the refrigerant in the compressor;
in short it is the ratio between heat extracted
and work done (in heat units).
 • If, Rn = Net refrigerating effect,
• W = Work expanded in by the machine during
the same interval of time,

where, Actual C.O.P. = Ratio of Rn and W actually

measured during a test and, Theoretical C.O.P. =
Ratio of theoretical values of Rn and W obtained
by applying laws of thermodynamics to the
refrigeration cycle.
 Standard Rating of a Refrigeration
Machine
• The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by
refrigerating effect or amount of heat extracted in a
given time from a body.
• The rating of the refrigeration machine is given by a
unit of refrigeration known as ‘‘standard
commercial tonne of refrigeration’’ which is defined
as the refrigerating effect produced by the melting
of 1 tonne of ice from and at 0°C in 24 hours.
• Since the latent heat of fusion of ice is 336 kJ/kg,
the refrigerating effect of 336 × 1000 kJ in 24 hours
is rated as one tonne, i.e….
SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION
SYSTEM

• Out of all refrigeration systems, the

vapour compression system is the most
important system from the view point
of commercial and domestic utility.
• It is the most practical form of
refrigeration.
• In this system the working fluid is a
vapour.
SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION
SYSTEM

• It readily evaporates and condenses

or changes alternately between the
vapour and liquid phases without
leaving the refrigerating plant.
• During evaporation, it absorbs heat
from the cold body.
• This heat is used as its latent heat for
converting it from the liquid to vapour.
• In condensing or cooling or liquifying, it
rejects heat to external body, thus creating a
cooling effect in the working fluid.
• This refrigeration system thus acts as a latent
heat pump since it pumps its latent heat
from the cold body or brine and rejects it or
delivers it to the external hot body or cooling
medium.
Simple Vapour Compression Cycle
• In a simple vapour compression system
fundamental processes are completed in one
cycle. These are :
1. Compression
2. Condensation
3. Expansion
4. Vapourisation.
Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Most common refrigeration cycle in use today
All energy transfers
by work and heat are
taken as positive in
the directions of the
arrows
Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture
Evaporator
• part of the refrigeration system that is doing
the actual cooling.
• its function is to absorb heat into the
refrigeration system (from where you don't
want it), hence its placed in the area to be
cooled.
• The refrigerant is let into and measured by a
flow control device, and eventually released
to the compressor.
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Evaporator
• The evaporator consists of finned tubes,
which absorbs heat from the air blown
through a coil by a fan, (at times).
• Fins and tubes are made of metals with high
thermal conductivity to maximize heat
transfer.
• The refrigerant vaporizes from the heat it
absorbs heat in the evaporator.

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 Compressor

• Of the reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal

compressors, the most popular is the
reciprocating.

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• A piston is driven by a motor to "suck in"
and compress the refrigerant in a cylinder.
• As the piston moves down into the
cylinder (increasing the volume of the
cylinder), it "sucks" the refrigerant from
the evaporator

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• The intake valve closes when the refrigerant
pressure inside the cylinder reaches that of the
pressure in the evaporator.
• When the piston hits the point of maximum
downward displacement, it compresses the
refrigerant on the upstroke.

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• The refrigerant is pushed through the exhaust
valve into the condenser.
• Both the intake and exhaust valves are
designed so that the flow of the refrigerant
only travels in one direction through the
system.

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Condenser
• The condenser removes heat given off during
the liquefication of vaporized refrigerant.
• Heat is given off as the temperature drops to
condensation temperature.
• Then, more heat (specifically the latent heat of
condensation) is released as the refrigerant
liquefies.
• There are air-cooled and water-cooled
condensers, named for their condensing
medium.

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Condenser
• The more popular is the air-cooled condenser.
The condensers consist of tubes with external
fins.
• The refrigerant is forced through the
condenser.
• In order to remove as much heat as possible,
the tubes are arranged to maximize surface
area.
• Fans are often used to increase air flow by
forcing air over the surfaces, thus increasing
the condenser capability to give off heat.
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 Expansion Device
• A valve or copper tubing that allows the flow
of the refrigerant through very small opening
also called as the orifice
• When the refrigerant passes through the
orifice its pressure reduces due to friction and
also the small opening of the orifice
Functions
• Reduce the pressure of the refrigerant:
• The refrigerant leaving the condenser is at high
pressure.
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• The pressure of the refrigerant has to be
reduced so that it can vaporize at the required
temperature in the evaporator.
• The small opening or the orifice in the
throttling valve reduces the pressure of the
refrigerant to the level such that vaporization
of the refrigerant occurs.
• The refrigerant leaving the throttling valve
enters the evaporator at low pressure, low
temperature and partially liquid and vapor
state

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Functions
• Meet the refrigeration load:
• The throttling valve also controls the amount
of the refrigerant flowing through it and to
the evaporator.
• More refrigeration load means the quantity
of the substance stored in the freezer is
more and it is at higher temperature, hence
more amount of heat is to be removed from
it.

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• In such cases the throttling devise allows
increased flow of the refrigerant through it.
• When the refrigeration load is less that
means the quantity of the substance is less
and it is at lower temperature, less amount
of heat is to be removed from it.
• In such cases the throttling valve allows
lesser flow of the refrigerant through it.

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 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
• The processes of this cycle are
Process 4-1: two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture of
refrigerant is evaporated
through heat transfer from
the refrigerated space.
Process 1-2: vapor Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture

refrigerant is compressed to
a relatively high temperature
and pressure requiring work
input.
 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
• The processes of this cycle are
Process 2-3: vapor
refrigerant condenses to
liquid through heat transfer
to the cooler surroundings.
Process 3-4: liquid
refrigerant expands to the Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture
evaporator pressure.
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
• Engineering model:
– Each component is analyzed as a control
volume at steady state.
– Dry compression is presumed: the
refrigerant is a vapor.
– The compressor operates adiabatically.
– The refrigerant expanding through the
valve undergoes a throttling process.
– Kinetic and potential energy changes are
ignored.
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
• Applying mass and energy rate balances
Evaporator Q in
 h1  h4 (Eq. 10.3)
m
►The term Q in is referred to as the
refrigeration capacity, expressed in kW
in the SI unit system or Btu/h in the
English unit system.
►A common alternate unit is the ton of
refrigeration which equals 200 Btu/min
or about 211 kJ/min.
►Applying mass and energy rate balances

Compressor
Assuming adiabatic compression

Wc
 h2  h1 (Eq. 10.4)
m
►Applying mass and energy rate balances

Condenser

Q out
 h2  h3 (Eq. 10.5)
m
►Applying mass and energy rate balances

Expansion valve
Assuming a throttling process

h4  h3 (Eq. 10.6)
 • Performance parameters
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Carnot Coefficient of Performance

 • Performance parameters

This equation represents the maximum

theoretical coefficient of performance of any
refrigeration cycle operating between cold
and hot regions at TC and TH, respectively.
 SELECTING THE RIGHT REFRIGERANT
• Several refrigerants may be used in
refrigeration systems e.g
• chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ammonia,
hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene,
etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the air-
conditioning of aircraft), and even water (in
applications above the freezing point).
• R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502
account for over 90 percent of the market.

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• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are
early synthetic refrigerants each containing
chlorine.
• Because of the adverse effect of chlorine
on Earth’s stratospheric ozone layer, use of
these refrigerants is regulated by
international agreement.
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and HFC
blends are chlorine-free refrigerants.
• Blends combine two or more HFCs.
• While these chlorine-free refrigerants do not
contribute to ozone depletion, with the
exception of R-1234yf, they have high
Global Warming Potential (GWP) levels.
• Natural refrigerants are nonsynthetic,
naturally occurring substances which serve
as refrigerants.
• These include carbon dioxide, ammonia,
and hydrocarbons.
• These refrigerants feature low GWP values;
still, concerns have been raised over the
toxicity of NH3 and the safety of the
hydrocarbons.
Example 11-1

Refrigerant-134a is the working fluid in an ideal compression refrigeration cycle. The

refrigerant leaves the evaporator at -20oC and has a condenser pressure of 0.9 MPa.
The mass flow rate is 3 kg/min. Find COPR and COPR, Carnot for the same Tmax and
Tmin , and the tons of refrigeration.

Using the Refrigerant-134a Tables, we have

State 2 
State1  kJ 
 h  238.41 Compressor exit kJ
Compressor inlet   1
kg  h2 s  278.23
  P2 s  P2  900 kPa  kg
T1  20o C   s  0.9456 kJ kJ  T2 s  43.79 C
o

x1  1.0   1 kg  K s2 s  s1  0.9456 
kg  K 

State 3  kJ State 4 
   x4  0.358
Condenser exit   3
h 101.61
kg Throttle exit 
  kJ
P3  900 kPa   kJ T4  T1  20o C   s4  0.4053
s3  0.3738  kg  K
x3  0.0   kg  K h4  h3 


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 QL m(h1  h4 ) h1  h4
COPR   
Wnet , in m(h2  h1 ) h2  h1
kJ
(238.41  101.61)
kg

kJ
(278.23  238.41)
kg
 3.44
The tons of refrigeration, often called the cooling load or refrigeration effect, are
QL  m(h1  h4 )
kg kJ 1Ton
3 (238.41  101.61)
min kg 211 kJ
min
 1.94 Ton
TL
COPR , Carnot 
TH  TL
(20  273) K

(43.79  (20)) K
 3.97 44
• Another measure of the effectiveness of the
refrigeration cycle is how much input power to the
compressor, in horsepower, is required for each ton
of cooling.
• The unit conversion is 4.715 hp per ton of cooling.

Wnet , in 4.715

QL COPR
4.715 hp

3.44 Ton
hp
 1.37
Ton
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 Isentropic Compressor Efficiency
►The isentropic compressor efficiency is the ratio of the
minimum theoretical work input to the actual work
input, each per unit of mass flowing:

work required in an isentropic

compression from compressor inlet
state to the exit pressure

(Eq. 6.48)

work required in an actual

compression from compressor
inlet state to exit pressure
Example: The table provides steady-state operating
data for a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
using R-134a as the working fluid. For a refrigerant
mass flow rate of 0.08 kg/s, determine the
(a) compressor power, in kW,
(b) refrigeration capacity, in tons,
(c) coefficient of performance,
(d) isentropic compressor efficiency.
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49
Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49

(a) The compressor power is

Wc  m
 (h2  h1)

 kg  kJ 1 kW
W c   0.08 (280 .15  241 .35 )  3.1 kW
 s  kg 1 kJ/s
(b) The refrigeration capacity is

Q in  m
 (h1  h4 )

  kg  kJ 1 ton 60 s
Qin   0.08 (241 .35  91 .49 )  3.41 tons
 s  kg 211 kJ/min min
Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49

(c) The coefficient of performance is

(h1  h4 )
C.O.P 
(h2  h1 )
(241.35  91.49)kJ/kg
C.O.P  
3.86
(280.15  241.35)kJ/kg
Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
State 1 2s 2 3 4
h (kJ/kg) 241.35 272.39 280.15 91.49 91.49

(d) The isentropic compressor

efficiency is

c 
  s (h2s  h1 )
Wc / m

Wc / m (h2  h1 )

(272 .39  241 .35)kJ/kg

c   0.8 = 80%
(280 .15  241 .35)kJ/kg
p-h Diagram
• The pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram is a
thermodynamic property diagram commonly
used in the refrigeration field.
 Refrigerant Types and Characteristics

Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a simplified index that estimates the potential
future influence on global warming associated with different gases when released
to the atmosphere.