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Healthy – free from infection or disease
Fit – how well you can perform a physical task and how quick you can recover,
measures, strength, speed, flexibility and stamina

Cardiovascular efficiency – the ability your heart has to supply the muscles with
oxygen, tested by measuring oxygen uptake and blood pressure.

Blood is pumped by heart contractions.

Arteries leave the heart, veins go to the heart and capillaries carry blood to every cell in
the body.
Blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts – systolic pressure
Blood pressure is lowest when the heart relaxes – diastolic pressure
Measured in mm of mercury (mmHg)
For healthy people it shouldn’t be higher than 135/80mmHg

High blood pressure can cause blood vessels to burst leading to : strokes, brain damage
and kidney damage
Low blood pressure can cause poor circulation leading to faint and dizziness
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Respiration is the process of releasing energy from glucose
When you exercise the breathing and pulse rate increase
Aerobic – glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water (+energy)
C⁶H¹²O⁶ + 6O² -> 6CO² + 6H²O
Anaerobic – glucose -> lactic acid (+energy)
(releases less energy, oxygen debt)

Carbohydrates – provide energy

Fats – provide energy act as an energy store and provide insulation
Proteins – growth and repair of tissue
Vitamins - prevent scurvy
Minerals – haemoglobin for healthy blood
Water – prevent dehydration
Fibre – keeps guts healthy – prevents constipation

Carbohydrates are simple sugars (glucose)

Fats are fatty acids and glycerol
Proteins are amino acids

Obesity and Kwashiorkor

Body Mass Index – calculated through height and weight
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Food is physically digested (chewing and churning in stomach)
Then chemical digestion to break molecules down that are too big to pass through cell
membranes this is done using ENZYMES.
Carbohydrases break down starch to simple sugars (in mouth and small intestine)
Proteases convert proteins to amino acids (in stomach as pepsin and small intestine)
Lipases convert fat to fatty acids and glycerol (in small intestine)
Stomach acids lower the Ph in the stomach
Bile made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder neutralises stomach acid (alkaline)
and emulsifies fats

Pathogens are micro-organisms that cause disease

Fungi – athletes foot
Bacteria – cholera
Viruses – flu
Protozoa – malaria – parasites
Micro-organisms reproduce rapidly in the body unless destroyed, white blood cells
travel everywhere in the body, when they come across micro-organisms they engulf
and digest them. Then antitoxins counter effect any poisons. Every pathogen has
different antigens when foreign antigens are found white blood cells produce
antibodies that kill invading cells and are specific to that pathogen. Antibodies are
rapidly produced and go around the body killing all other similar pathogens and if the
same pathogens ever come back the antibodies will kill them.
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Immunisation means injecting dead or inactive organisms in to the body, they have
harmless antigens that the body makes antibodies so you wont get infected by the
disease if it appears
Antibiotics kill bacteria and fungi without killing body cells but don’t kill virus

Drug testing
Computer models – simulate human responses
Human tissue or whole animal/body systems
Animal testing
Human testing – new drug and placebo, allows scientists to see the difference the drug
makes
Drugs alter the way the body works
Depressants – decrease brain activity
Stimulants - increase brain activity
Painkillers – reduces the number of ‘painful’ stimuli at nerve endings
Performance enhancers – build muscle and allow harder training
Hallucinogens – distort what’s seen or heard
Some drugs are illegal they are classed by how dangerous they are - class A,B or C
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Alcohol is a depressant drug it slows down the nervous system and if you drink too
much too often it can kill you liver cells leaving scar tissue stopping blood flow
(cirrhosis). It can also cause dehydration or get you drunk.

Cigarettes:
Carbon monoxide – stop haemoglobin carrying as much oxygen.
Nicotine – stimulant drug – addictive
Tar – covers cilia
Suspensory
Particulates – accumulation of lung tissue ligaments

Cornea – reflects light

Iris - controls how much light enter pupil
Lens – focuses light onto retina
Retina – light sensitive has rods and cone –
receptors that detect light
Rods – sensitive to dim light
Cones – sensitive to colours
Optic nerve – carries impulses for receptor to Cilia
muscle
brain
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Binocular vision – both eyes work together to judge distance and speed
Monocular vision – eyes work separately for a wider field of vision but you can’t judge
distance or speed

Neurones transmit information around the body through electrical impulses

Axon – impulses passed

along
Dendrite – connect with
Dendrite
other neurones this is
called synapse Cell body
Sheath – insulates so
the impulse is not lost
They are long so they
wont have to keep
sending the impulse to
other neurones (slows Insulating
sheath
it down)
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The central nervous system contain the brain, spinal cord the peripheral nervous
system and all other neurones
Sensory neurones carry information from receptors to the CNS, the CNS send the info
to a effector (muscle or gland) along the motor neurone and it responds accordingly.

Electrical impulses for quick responses, reflex actions are done without think so they’re
quicker. Reflex arc (no brain), sensory neurone joins to a relay neurone in the spinal
cord which links directly to the right motor neurone.

Homeostasis – maintaining a constant internal environment

Carbon dioxide levels, water and body temperature
Controlled by the brain

Insulin controls blood sugar

Diabetes – when the pancreas stops making enough insulin

Hormones promote sexual characteristics at puberty.

Testosterone and oestrogen
Hormones control the menstrual cycle – oestrogen, causes lining to thicken and
stimulates the release of an egg – progesterone, maintains lining, when levels fall the
lining breaks down.
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Oestrogen and progesterone are use in contraception “the pill”.

Chromosomes are long lengths of DNA coiled up, a gene a

Short section of DNA.
A human cell contains 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs.
mutation change the genetic code
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Atoms join (form bonds) to other atoms to make molecules, molecules with different
types of atoms are compounds.
Atoms have nucleus’ - positively charged
And electrons – negatively charged, they move around the nucleus in shells
Charged atoms are ions, opposite ions attract and join, ionic bond
Covalent bonds are where atoms share electrons
Methane = CH₄ Carbon Monoxide = CO Ethene = C₂H₄
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Additives
Food colours – look better
Flavour enhancers – taste and smell better
Antioxidants – preserve food – food doesn’t react with oxygen, oxygen turns fat/oil
into nasty tasting and smelling substances.
Emulsifiers – help oil and water blend together, one liquid is suspended in another,
emulsions one part attracted to water (hydrophilic), the other oil (hydrophobic).

Foods are cooked to have a better texture and taste, to be easier to digest, cooking
can kill nasty microbes in food, other foods are poisonous when raw.
Cooking is a chemical change that is irreversible
Baking powder undergoes thermal decomposition breaks down to simpler
substances, helped by a catalyst,
Sodium hydrogencarbonate -> sodium carbonate + carbon dioxide and water
2NaHCO₃ -> Na₂CO₃ +CO₂ + H₂O

Perfumes, esters are used to make the smell, manufactured synthetically.

Made by heating carboxylic acid and alcohol
Acid + Alcohol -> Ester +Water
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Properties
Easily evaporates, non-toxic, doesn’t react with water, doesn't irritate skin and
insoluble in water.
New perfumes have to be tested thoroughly, some are tested on animals

Solids
Strong forces of attraction
Don’t move – definite shape and volume
Vibrate - more heat, more vibrate – expand

Liquids
Some force of attraction
Free to move past each other
No definite shape, flow to fill bottom of container
Constantly move – heat – move faster , expands

Gases
Almost no force of attraction
Free to move wherever
No shape or volume, fills container and bounces of the walls
Constantly move heat – move fast, expands or increases pressure
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When you add a solid (SOLVENT) to a liquid (SOLUTE) the bonds holding them
together sometime break and the molecules mix, forming a solution, this is called
dissolving. The bond break depending on how strong the attractions are between
the molecules.
Solute – dissolved
Solvent – liquid dissolving it into
Solution – mixture
Soluble – will dissolve
Insoluble – won’t dissolve
Solubility – how much will dissolve

Polymers
Plastics are made when loads of small molecules called monomers are joined
together in a chain to make polymers.
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Alkene – unsaturated, double bond CnH₂n+₂
Hydrogenated to make alkanes
Reacts with bromine to make colourless
When burnt – yellow smoky flame

Alkane – saturated – single bond CnH₂n

No change with bromine
When burnt, smoky orange flame
HH H H H H
H C- C- C H -> H C H C = C
H H H H H H
Cracking makes
Alkenes – more reactive
Shorter chains

A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons.

ethene → poly(ethene): ethene is the monomer.
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Fractional distillation
Crude oil is formed by buried remains of plants and animals. It is a mixture of
different hydrocarbons, they are separated in a fractionating column
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As the size of the hydrocarbon increases
The boiling point increases
Less flammable
Doesn’t flow as easy
Doesn’t evaporate as easily

Covalent and intermolecular bonds

Covalent – between the carbons and hydrogen's within a hydrocarbon
Intermolecular – the attraction between different hydrocarbon molecules
Heat -> energy (need a catalyst)
Molecules move about
Overcome intermolecular forces
Cracking - splitting up long chain hydrocarbons
Thermal decomposition

The complete combustion of any hydrocarbon in oxygen

Hydrocarbon + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water (+energy)
CH₄ + 2O₂ -> 2H₄O + CO₂ (+energy)
Incomplete – not enough oxygen
Hydrocarbon + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water +carbon monoxide + carbon (+energy)
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4CH₄ + 60₂ -> C + 2CO + CO₂ + 8H₂0 (+energy)
Exothermic reaction – heat given off
An endothermic reaction means heat is taken in
Energy is needed to break down bonds

Calorimetric – heating water by burning a liquid fuel

Amount of fuel burned, temperature changed in water work out energy transferred
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Heat is a measure of energy, the unit of heat energy is a joule(j)
The hotter something is the higher the temperature
If there is a difference in energy between two substance them the energy will flow
between them until they are the same temperature
Specific heat capacity is how much energy things can store, the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of 1Kg of one substance by 1⁰C
Energy = mass x SHC x temperature change

Heat energy makes particles move faster , enough energy means bubbles of gas form,
boiling. When melted or boiled the energy is used for breaking intermolecular bonds .
Condensing and freezing mean bonds are forming.
Specific latent heat energy
Energy
Mass x SLH

Conduction, vibrations are passed on through a solid, particles that vibrate faster than
others pass on their kinetic energy to other particles. The process continues through
the solid so the heat is spread. Metals are good conductor, liquids and gases conduct
slower.
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Convection , when you heat a liquid or gas, the particles move faster and expand,
becoming less dense. The warmer less dense fluid rises above the colder, denser
surroundings, as warm fluid rises cooler fluid takes its place, the process repeats.

Radiation - infrared waves – heat

Can occur in a vacuum like space
Can occur through transparent substances
The amount of radiation emitted or absorbed by an object depends on the surface
colour texture.

All objects are continually absorbing and emitting heat radiation, the hotter the object
the more it emits, cooler objects absorb heat radiation.
Blacks surface are good absorbers and emitters.
Grills and toasters heat food by radiation, the radiation is absorbed by the food surface
particles, increasing kinetic energy, the energy is then convected/conduced to the
centre.
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Thermogram a picture taken with a thermal imaging camera, objects emit infrared
waves at different lengths, depending on temperature they display as different colours.

Useful machines convert energy from one form to another, the energy output is always
the same as the input, but only some of the output energy is useful, this is because
some of the input energy is lost of wasted.
Efficiency = useful energy output
total energy input

The amplitude is the displacement from the rest position to the crest.
The wavelength is the length of a full cycle of the wave
Frequency is the number of waves passing a point per second, measured in hertz.
Radio waves
Micro waves
Infrared
Visible light
Ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma rays
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Waves can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
Radio waves and microwaves can transmit information over long distances, they don’t
get absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere.
Refraction helps the radio waves travel further.

Optical fibres carry information long distances, as pulses of light or infrared, they
bounce waves of the sides. (total internal reflection).

An analogue wave can take any value within any given range, whereas digital signals
can only take two values.
Both weaken as they travel
When you amplify analogue signal the low amplitude is amplified to so the more you
amplify it the worse the quality. Digital remains high quality.
Digital can transmit multiple signals – multiplexing.

Ultraviolet radiation can cause skin cancer, but the ozone layer can protect us.
Ozone layer has 3 oxygen atoms, they absorb the uv, but recently its got thinner.

Wave speed
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength
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When there is an earthquake, shock waves travel through the waves, these are seismic
waves and are recorded on seismographs.
P-waves are longitudinal – travel through solids and liquid quicker than s-waves
S-waves are transverse – travel through solids they are slower than p- waves

Remember
As a solid melts its temperature stays the same.
The correct equation is energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature.
If the specific latent heat of melting of water is 334 kJ/kg, 33.4 kJ of energy is needed
to melt 100 g of ice.
Heat passes through a single pane of window glass by conduction and radiation.
X-rays can be used to check metal parts for damage.
Black, dull surfaces absorb thermal radiation the best.
Microwaves are used when mobile phones communicate with their base stations.
The kinetic energy of particles in food increases when they absorb infrared radiation or
microwaves.
One advantage of optical fibres over ordinary cables of the same thickness is: They can
carry more information.
How do signals travel through optical fibres? As infrared radiation or visible light.
Ghosting" on television pictures may be caused by the TV signal reflecting off objects.
Microwaves are used for satellite communications because they are not refracted by
the atmosphere.
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Light waves are transverse.
Light rays that are in the same phase as each other, and have the same frequency,
typically form in laser light.
Unit of frequency – Hz
Global warming is caused by the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.