CSWIP 3.

Certification Scheme for Welding Inspector (Level 2)

in accordance with the requirements of BS EN 970

Ref. Document No. : CSWIP-WI-6-92

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 Welding Inspector

Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

Section 1

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 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

 Basic requirements for visual inspection (to BS

EN 970)
 Welding inspection personnel
 Conditions for visual inspection
 Aids to visual inspection
 Stages when inspection may be required
 Typical duties of a welding inspector
 Examination records

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 Main Responsibilities 1.1

• Code compliance

• Workmanship control

• Documentation control

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 Personal Attributes 1.1

Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected

to have are:
• Honesty

• Integrity

• Knowledge

• Good communicator

• Physical fitness

• Good eyesight
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 Standard for Visual Inspection 1.1

Basic Requirements
BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion
welds - Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• be familiar with relevant standards, rules and
specifications applicable to the fabrication work to be
undertaken
• be informed about the welding procedures to be used
• have good vision in accordance with EN 473 (which
should be checked every 12 months)

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 Welding Inspection 1.2

Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

Illumination:
• 350 lux minimum required
• Minimum recommended illumination is 350 lux ~ 500 lux
• (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
• eye should be within 600mm (Max.) of the surface
• viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30°

600mm

30°

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 Welding Inspection 1.3

Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

When access is restricted may use:

A mirrored boroscope
A fibre optic viewing system }Usually by agreement

Other aids:
Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld
profile, fillet sizing, measuring undercut depth)
Dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges
Straight edges and measuring tapes
Magnifying lens (if a magnification lens used it should
be X2 to X5)
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Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3

Measuring devices:
• flexible tape, steel rule
• Temperature indicating crayons
• Welding gauges
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Magnifying glass
• Torch / flash light
• Gas flow-meter

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 Welding Inspectors Gauges 1.3

10mm 10mm 1

G.A.L. G.A.L. 3

S.T.D. L S.T.D.
16mm 5
16mm
6

Fillet Weld Gauges

HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

IN
0 1/4 1/2 3/4

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

Hi-Lo Gauge

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 Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3

Voltmeter Ammeter

Tong Tester
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 Welding Inspection 1.3

Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

Extent of examination and when required should be
defined in the application standard or by agreement
between the contracting parties

For high integrity fabrications inspection required

throughout the fabrication process:

Before welding
(Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5

Before Welding
Preparation:
Familiarisation with relevant ‘documents’…
• Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance
requirements
• Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
• Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as
material handling, documentation control, storage & issue
of welding consumables
• Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5

Before Welding

Welding Procedures:
• Are applicable to joints to be welded & approve
• Are available to welders & inspectors

Welder Qualifications:
• List of available qualified welders related to WPS’s
• Certificates are valid and ‘in-date’

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Equipment:
• All inspection equipment is in good condition &
calibrated as necessary
• All safety requirements are understood & necessary
equipment available
Materials:
• Can be identified & related to test certificates,
traceability !
• Are of correct dimensions

• Are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Consumables:
• In accordance with WPS’s

• Are being controlled in accordance with Procedure

Weld Preparations:
• Comply with WPS/drawing

• Free from defects & contamination

Welding Equipment:
• In good order & calibrated as required by Procedure

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding

Fit-up
• Complies with WPS
• Number / size of tack welds to Code / good
workmanship
Weld Face
• Free from defects, contamination and damage
Pre-heat
• If specified
• Minimum temperature complies with WPS

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5

During Welding
Weather conditions
• Suitable if site / field welding
Welding Processes
• In accordance with WPS
Welder
• Is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
• Minimum temperature as specified by WPS
• Maximum interpass temperature as WPS
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6

During Welding
Welding consumables
• In accordance with WPS
• In suitable condition
• Controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
• Current, voltage & travel speed – as WPS

Root runs
• If possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6

During Welding
Inter-run cleaning
• In accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Gouging/grinding
• By an approved method and to good workman ship
standards
Distortion control
• Welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6

After Welding
Weld Identification
• Identified/numbered as required
• Is marked with welder’s identity
Visual Inspection
• Ensure weld is suitable for all NDT
• Visually inspect & ‘sentence’ to Code requirements
Dimensional Survey
• Ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT
• Ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6

After Welding
Repairs
• Monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure,
ensure NDT after repairs is completed
• PWHT
• Monitor for compliance with Procedure
• Check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test
• Ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
• Monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
• Ensure all records are available
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.6

After Welding
Documentation
• Ensure any modifications are on ‘as-built’ drawings
• Ensure all required documents are available
• Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
• Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department.

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 Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures.
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality
throughout production.

Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to
quality, including a final report showing all identified
imperfections

Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance
criteria and any other relevant clauses in the applied
application standard
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 Welding Inspector
Terms and Definitions
Section 2

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 Terms and Definitions

 Types of weld
 Types of joints (see BS EN ISO 15607)
 Features of the completed weld
 Weld preparation
 Size of butt welds
 Fillet weld
 Welding position, weld slope and weld rotation
 weaving

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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1

What is a Weld?
• A union of pieces of metal made by welding. (BS499)

What is a Welding?
• An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of
heat or pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in
the nature of the metal between these parts. (BS499)

• A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either

by heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or
without the application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone and with or without the use of filler metal ” (AWS)

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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1

What is a Brazing?
• A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during
or after heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in
the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be
joined by capillary attraction. In general, the melting point of the
filler metal is above 450°C but always below the melting
temperature of the parent materials. (BS499)

What is a Braze welding?

• The joining of metal using a technique similar to fusion welding
and a filler metal with a lower melting point than the parent
metal, but neither using capillary action as in brazing nor
intentionally melting the parent metal. (BS499)

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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1

An Autogenous weld:
• A weld made without the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG, Plasma, electron beam, laser or
Oxy-Gas Welding.

What is a Joint?
• A connection where the individual components, suitably
prepared and assemble, are joined by welding or brazing.
(BS499)

• The junction of members or the edges of members that are

to be joined or have been joined (AWS).
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 Joint Terminology 2.2

Edge Open & Closed Corner Lap

Tee Butt
Cruciform

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 Welded Butt Joints 2.2

Butt
A_________Welded butt joint

Fillet
A_________Welded butt joint

Compound
A____________Welded butt joint

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 Welded Tee Joints 2.2

Fillet
A_________Welded T joint

Butt
A_________Welded T joint

Compound
A____________Welded T joint

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 Weld Terminology 2.3

Butt weld Spot weld

Fillet weld

Edge weld Plug weld

Compound weld

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 Butt Preparations – Sizes 2.4

Partial Penetration Butt Weld

Actual Throat
Design Throat
Thickness
Thickness

Full Penetration Butt Weld

Design Throat Actual Throat

Thickness Thickness

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 Weld Zone Terminology 2.5

Face
A B

Weld
metal

Heat Weld
Affected Boundary
Zone

C D
Root
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
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 Weld Zone Terminology 2.5

Weld cap width

Excess
Cap height Actual Throat Design
or Weld Thickness Throat
Reinforcement Thickness

Excess Root
Penetration

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 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 2.5

Maximum solid solid-liquid Boundary

Temperature weld
grain growth zone
metal
recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone
tempered zone
unaffected base
material

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 Joint Preparation Terminology 2.7
Included angle Included angle

Angle of
bevel

Root
Radius

Root Face Root Face

Root Gap Root Gap
Single-V Butt Single-U Butt

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Joint Preparation Terminology 2.8 & 2.9

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel

Root
Radius

Root Face Root Gap Root Face

Root Gap Land
Single Bevel Butt Single-J Butt

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 Single Sided Butt Preparations 2.10

Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or

when access form both sides is restricted

Single Bevel Single Vee

Single-J Single-U

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 Double Sided Butt Preparations 2.11

Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or

when access form both sides is unrestricted

Double -Bevel Double -Vee

Double - J Double - U

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 Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions: V-Joints
bevel angle
included angle

root face
root gap

Typical Dimensions
bevel angle 25 ° to 30°
root face ~1 to ~2 mm
root gap ~1 to ~4 mm

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 Butt Weld - Toe Blend
6 mm •Most codes quote the weld
toes shall blend smoothly
80° •This statement is not
quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle interpretation
3 mm •The higher the toe blend
angle the greater the
20° amount of stress
concentration
•The toe blend angle ideally
Improved Weld Toe Blend
Angle should be between 20o-30o

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 Fillet Weld Features 2.13

Excess
Weld Metal

Vertical
Leg
Length Design
Throat

Horizontal leg
Length

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 Fillet Weld Throat Thickness 2.13

a
b
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness

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 Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features 2.13

s
b
s = Design Throat Thickness
(Deep penetration Fillet weld)
b = Actual Throat Thickness
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 Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14

Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg

Length:

Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7

Question: The Leg length is 14mm.

What is the Design Throat?

Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness

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 Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14

Calculating Leg Length from a known Design

Throat Thickness:

Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4

Question: The Design Throat is 10mm.

What is the Leg length?

Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length

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 Features to Consider 2 2.14

Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

(a) (b)

8mm
4mm

4mm 2mm

Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet

Welds, but the effective throat thickness has been
altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B

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 Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14

Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size

(a) (b) Excess
Excess

4mm 6mm
(a) (b)
4mm 6mm

Area = (4 x 4 )/2 Area = (6 x 6)/2

= 8 mm2 = 18 mm2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added
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 Fillet Weld Profiles 2.15

Fillet welds - Shape

Mitre Fillet Convex Fillet

A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
Concave Fillet fatigue loading

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 Fillet Features to Consider 2.15

EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

“a” = Nominal throat thickness “s” = Effective throat thickness

a s

Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat

input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc
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 Welding Positions 2.17

PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand

PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical

PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)

PE 4G Overhead

PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up

PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down

H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)

J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)

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 Welding Positions 2.17

ISO

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 Welding Positions 2.17

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 Welding position designation 2.17
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA
Overhead - PE

Vertical Horizontal - PC
up - PF

Vertical down - PG

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 Welding position designation 2.17
Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)

Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Flat - PA axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
axis: horizontal pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
pipe: rotated

H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

axis: inclined at 45° axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical
pipe: fixed pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
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 Welding position designation 2.17
Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

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 Welding position designation 2.17
Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical axis: vertical
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed

Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

axis: horizontal axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
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 Plate/Fillet Weld Positions 2.17

PA / 1G
PA / 1F
PF / 3G

PB / 2F
PC / 2G

PE / 4G PG / 3G
PD / 4F

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 Pipe Welding Positions 2.17

PF / 5G PG / 5G
PA / 1G
Weld: Flat Weld: Vertical upwards Weld: Vertical Downwards
Pipe: rotated Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal

45o 45o

PC / 2G
H-LO 45 / 6G J-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Horizontal Weld: Upwards Weld: Downwards
Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Vertical Axis: Inclined Axis: Inclined
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 Travel Speed Measurement 2.18

Definition: the rate of weld progression

measured in case of mechanised and automatic
welding processes
in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
time

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 Welding Inspector
Welding Imperfections
And Materials Inspection
Section 3

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 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection

 Definitions
 Cracks
 Cavities
 Solid inclusions
 Lack of fusion and penetration
 Imperfect shape and dimensions
 Miscellaneous imperfections
 Acceptance standards

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 Welding Imperfections 3.1

Definitions : (See BS EN ISO 6520-1)

• Imperfection: Any deviation from the ideal weld.

• Defect: An unacceptable Imperfection.

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 Welding Imperfections 3.1

Standards for Welding Imperfections

Classification of Imperfection according to BS EN ISO 6520-
1:
This standard classified the geometric imperfection in case of
fusion welding, dividing them into six groups:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
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 Welding Imperfections 3.1

Standards for Welding Imperfections

EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,
nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded) - Quality
levels for imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is ‘directly applicable to visual testing of welds’
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)

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 Welding imperfections 3.1

classification

Cracks

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 Cracks 3.1

Definition: An imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid

state, which may arise from the effect of cooling or stresses.
Cracks are more significant than other types of imperfection, as
their geometry produce a very large stress concentration at the
crack tip, making them more likely to cause fracture.

Classified by Shape / Direction

•Longitudinal Classified by crack Location
•Transverse •Weld metal
•Radiating •HAZ
•Crater •Parent metal
•Branching

Exception: Crater cracks are found only in weld metal.

Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.

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 Cracks 3.1

Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal

Longitudinal weld metal Crater crack weld metal

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 Cracks 3.1

Transverse crack Longitudinal crack

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 Cracks 3.2

Main Crack Types

Hot (ie solidification liquation Cracks)
Precipitation induced (ie reheat cracks).
Cold (ie hydrogen induced cracks).
Lamellar tearing.

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 Cracks 3.2

Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld

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 Cracks 3.3

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as
result of contaminated electrode or preparation
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ

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 Lamellar Tearing 3.5

Location: Parent metal

Steel Type: Any steel type possible
Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness
ductility
• Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the
solid inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides
and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses
• Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction
containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible
to lamellar tearing
• It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction)
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 Gas Cavities 3.6

Gas pore Cluster porosity

Causes:
•Loss of gas shield
•Damp electrodes
•Contamination
•Arc length too large
Herringbone porosity
•Damaged electrode flux
•Moisture on parent material
•Welding current too low

Gas pore <1.5mm

Root piping

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 Gas Cavities 3.7

Porosity

Root piping

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 Gas Cavities 3.8

Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity

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 Crater Pipe 3.9

Weld crater

Crater pipe

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 Crater Pipe 3.9

Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has

the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater

Crater cracks Causes:

(Star cracks)
• Too fast a cooling
rate
• Deoxidization
reactions and
liquid to solid
Crater pipe volume change
• Contamination

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 Solid Inclusions 3.10

Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion

caused by some welding process
Causes:
• Slag originates from
welding flux

Lack of sidewall •MAG and TIG welding

Slag inclusions
fusion with process produce silica
associated slag inclusions
• Slag is trapped by
inadequate cleaning
• Other inclusions include
Parallel slag lines Lack of interun tungsten and copper
fusion + slag inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding process

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 Solid Inclusions 3.11

Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines

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 Welding Imperfections 3.13

Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:

• welding current too low
• bevel angle too steep
• root face too large (single-sided weld)
• root gap too small (single-sided weld)
• incorrect electrode angle
• linear misalignment
• welding speed too high
• welding process related – particularly dip-transfer GMAW
• flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)

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 Lack of Fusion 3.13

Causes:
•Poor welder skill
• Incorrect electrode
Incomplete filled groove +
manipulation
Lack of sidewall fusion
• Arc blow
• Incorrect welding
1 current/voltage
2 • Incorrect travel speed

1. Lack of sidewall fusion • Incorrect inter-run cleaning

2. Lack of inter-run fusion

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 Lack of Fusion 3.13

Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove

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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.15

Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration

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 Cap Undercut 3.18

Intermittent Cap Undercut

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 Undercut 3.18

Root undercut Cap undercut

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 Surface and Profile 3.19

Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile

Poor cap profiles and

excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress
concentration points at the
weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe
blend Excessive cap height

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 Surface and Profile 3.19

Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove

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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.20

Excessive root
penetration
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 Overlap 3.21

An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal

flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it

Causes:
•Contamination
•Slow travel speed
•Incorrect welding
technique
•Current too low

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 Overlap 3.21

Toe Overlap

Toe Overlap

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 Set-Up Irregularities 3.22

Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.

Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment

(Hi-Lo)

Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees

Angular Misalignment

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 Set-Up Irregularities 3.22

Linear Misalignment

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 Set-Up Irregularities 3.22

Linear Misalignment

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 Incomplete Groove 3.23

Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove

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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.24

A shallow concave groove like shape, which may occur in the

root of a butt weld
Causes:
Excessive back purge
pressure during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
Concave Root
welding current too high for
2nd pass overheated welding
root gap too large - excessive
‘weaving’
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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.24

Concave Root

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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.24

Concave root Excess root penetration

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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.25

A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive

penetration resulting in a hole in the root run

Causes:
• High Amps/volts
• Small Root face
• Large Root Gap
• Slow Travel
Burn through Speed

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 Weld Root Imperfections 3.25

Burn Through

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 Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Causes:
• Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)

• Most commonly occurs

when welding stainless
steels

• Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen

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 Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.26

Causes:
• Poor access to the work
• Missing insulation on
electrode holder or torch
• Poor return lead clamping
• Adjusting wire feed (MAG
welding) without isolating
Stray Arc (Arc strike) welding current

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 Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.27

Causes:
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed speed
when welding with the MAG
welding process
• Long arc length

Spatter • Wrong selection of shielding

gas (100% CO2)

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 Mechanical Damage 3.28

Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface

material
damage cause during the manufacturing process.

• Grinding
• Hammering
• Chiselling
• Chipping
• Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
• Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs
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 Mechanical Damage 3.28

Chipping Marks

Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark

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 Welding Inspector
Destructive Testing
Section 4

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 Destructive Testing
 Test types, test pieces and test objectives
• Transverse tensile tests
• All-weld tensile tests
• Impact toughness tests
• Hardness testing
• Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing.
• Bend testing
• Fracture tests
 Macroscopic examination
• European Standards for destructive test methods

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 Qualitative and Quantitative Tests 4.1
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
quantitative tests to measure Mechanical Properties
Tensile tests (Transverse Welded Joint, All Weld Metal)
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)

The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed

qualitative tests for assessing joint quality
Macro testing
Bend testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Butt weld nick-break testing
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 Mechanical Test Samples 4.1
Tensile Specimens
CTOD Specimen

Bend Test
Specimen
Charpy Specimen

Fracture Fillet
Specimen

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 Destructive Testing 4.1
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING

top of fixed pipe

2 Typical Positions for Test
Pieces
Specimen Type Position
•Macro + Hardness 5
3
•Transverse Tensile 2, 4
•Bend Tests 2, 4
•Charpy Impact Tests 3

4 •Additional Tests 3

5
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 Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the
amount of deformation which metals can withstand under
different circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Ability of a material to

withstand deformation
• Ductility
under static compressive
• Toughness loading without rupture
• Hardness
• Tensile Strength

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 Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the
amount of deformation which metals can withstand under
different circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Ability of a material

undergo plastic
• Ductility
deformation under static
• Toughness tensile loading without
• Hardness rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction
• Tensile Strength in cross section area

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 Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the
amount of deformation which metals can withstand under
different circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Ability of a material to

withstand bending or the
• Ductility
application of shear
• Toughness stresses by impact loading
• Hardness without fracture.

• Tensile Strength

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 Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the
amount of deformation which metals can withstand under
different circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Measurement of a
materials surface
• Ductility
resistance to indentation
• Toughness from another material by
• Hardness static load

• Tensile Strength

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 Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the
amount of deformation which metals can withstand under
different circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Measurement of the

maximum force required to
• Ductility
fracture a materials bar of
• Toughness unit cross-sectional area in
• Hardness tension

• Tensile Strength

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 Transverse Joint Tensile Test 4.2

Weld on plate

Multiple cross joint

Weld on pipe specimens

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 Tensile Test 4.3

All-Weld Metal Tensile

Specimen

Transverse Tensile
Specimen

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STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
For materials that may be subject to Lamellar Tearing

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 UTS Tensile test 4.4

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 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.5

Objectives:
• measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
• assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type
• Notch type
• Specimen size
• Test temperature
• Notch location
• Impact Strength Value
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 Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve 4.6

Ductile fracture
Temperature range

47 Joules

Transition range Ductile/Brittle

transition
point

28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
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 Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results 4.6

Impact Energy Joules

Room Temperature -20oC Temperature

1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules

2. 191 Joules 2. 53 Joules
3. 186 Joules 3. 51 Joules

Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules

The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20oC

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Charpy V-notch impact test specimen 4.7
Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23

ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials

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 Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.8

Specime Pendulu
n m
(striker)

Anvil (support)

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 Charpy Impact Test 4.9

22.5o
2 mm 10 mm 100% Brittle

Machined
notch

Fracture surface
8 mm

100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture

100% Ductile
Machined
notch

Large reduction
in area, shear
lips
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
surface
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 Hardness Testing 4.10

Definition
• Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
• There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness

Hardness tests:
• Brinell

• Vickers

• Rockwell

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 Hardness Testing 4.10

Objectives:
• measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
• assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking
and corrosion sensitivity within a H2S (Hydrogen Sulphide)
environment.

Information to be supplied on the test report:

• material type
• location of indentation
• type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter
• hardness value

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 Vickers Hardness Test 4.11

Vickers hardness tests:

• indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
(136º included angle)
• the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
converted to a hardness number from a table
• it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor

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Vickers Hardness Test Machine 4.11

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 Brinell Hardness Test 4.11

• Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for

a given time to a given load
• Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell
hardness in kg/mm2
• More suitable for on site hardness testing
30KN

Ø=10mm
steel ball

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 Rockwell Hardness Test

Rockwell B Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN

Ø=1.6mm 120°Diamond
steel ball Cone

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 Hardness Testing 4.12

usually the hardest region

1.5 to 3mm
fusion line
or
fusion HAZ
boundary

Hardness Test Methods Typical Designations

Vickers 240 HV10
Rockwell Rc 22
Brinell 200 BHN-W
Hardness specimens can also be used for CTOD samples

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Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing 4.12

Test is for fracture toughness

Square bar machined with a notch placed in the
centre.
Tested below ambient temperature at a
specified temperature.
Load is applied at either end of the test
specimen in an attempt to open a crack at the
bottom of the notch
Normally 3 samples

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 Fatigue Fracture 4.13

Location: Any stress concentration area

Steel Type: All steel types

Susceptible Microstructure: All grain structures

Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD

(Crack Tip Opening Displacement)

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 Fatigue Fracture 4.13

• Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions

• Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch
and weld defects i.e stress concentration area
• All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking
• Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as
a initiation point
• The fracture surface is smooth in appearance
sometimes displaying beach markings
• The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a
combination of both

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 Fatigue Fracture
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
• Toe grinding, profile grinding.
• The elimination of poor profiles
• The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld
defects
• Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits
• The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage
cap/root undercut
• The selection of the correct material for the service
conditions of the component
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 Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow
into an area of low stress and stop without failure).

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 Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure Fatigue fracture surface
ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance smooth in appearance

Initiation points / weld defects

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 Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
Crack growth is slow
It initiate from stress concentration points
load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
The surface is smooth
The surface is bounded by a curve
Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface –
“beachmarks”. They show the progress of the crack front from the
point of origin
The surface is 90° to the load
Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the
maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!)
Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods

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 Bend Tests 4.15

Object of test:
• To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
testing can also be used to give an assessment of
weld zone ductility.
• There are three ways to perform a bend test:

Face bend
Root bend Side bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
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 Bending test 4.16

Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):

“t” up to 12 mm Root / face

bend

Thickness of material - “t”

“t” over 12 mm Side bend

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 Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17

Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces
Specimens are cut to the required length
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied
along the fillet welds length
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen
with a single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects

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 Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17

Hammer

2mm
Notch

Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

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 Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17

This fracture indicates This fracture has

lack of fusion occurred saw cut to root

Lack of Penetration
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 Nick-Break Test 4.18

Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
• Specimens are cut transverse to the weld

• A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied

along the welds root and cap
• Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with
a single hammer blow
• Visual inspection for defects

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 Nick-Break Test 4.18

Notch cut by hacksaw

2 mm
19 mm

2 mm
Approximately 230 mm

Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed

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 Nick Break Test 4.18

Alternative nick-break test

specimen, notch applied all
way around the specimen

Lack of root penetration Inclusions on fracture

or fusion line

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 Summary of Mechanical Testing 4.19
We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint

We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:

Quantitative: (Have units/numbers) Qualitative: (Have no units/numbers)

To measure mechanical properties For assessing joint quality
Hardness (VPN & BHN) Macro tests
Toughness (Joules & [Link]) Bend tests
Strength (N/mm2 & PSI, MPa) Fillet weld fracture tests
Ductility / Elongation (E%) Butt Nick break tests

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 Welding Inspector

Non Destructive Testing

Section 5

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 Non-Destructive Testing

 Introduction
 Radiographic methods
 Ultrasonic methods
 Magnetic particle testing
 Dye penetrant testing

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 Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.

Four basic NDT methods

• Radiographic inspection (RT)
• Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
• Dye penetrant inspection (PT)

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 Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
• Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)

Volumetric & Planar Inspection

• Ultrasonic (UT)
• Radiography (RT)

Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with

respect to:
• Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration of
these advantages and disadvantages

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 Radiographic Testing (RT)

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 Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
• Applicable to metals, non-metals and composites

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 Radiographic Testing

X – Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms

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 Radiographic Testing
Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Test specimen

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

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 Radiographic Testing
Density - relates to the degree of darkness

Densitometer

Contrast - relates to the degree of difference

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph

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 Radiographic Sensitivity

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

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 Radiographic Sensitivity

Step/Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

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 Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
• film inside, source outside

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

• film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

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 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

Film

Film

IQI’s should be placed source side

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 Single Wall Single Image Panoramic

Film

• IQI’s are placed on the film side

• Source inside film outside (single exposure)

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 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
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 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• Identification

• Unique identification
EN W10

• IQI placing

• Pitch marks indicating A B

readable film length
ID MR11

Radiograph
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 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Radiograph
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 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10

• IQI placing

• Pitch marks indicating 1 2

readable film length
ID MR12

Shot A Radiograph

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 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

4 3

1 2

Elliptical Radiograph
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 Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
•the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)

Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
•the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)

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 Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope Typical Thickness Range
• Iridium 192 10 to 75 mm (mostly used)

• Cobalt 60 40 to 150 mm

• Ytterbium < 12 mm
• Thulium < 7 mm
• Cesium < 10 mm

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 Radiographic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Expensive consumables
• Permanent record
• Bulky equipment
• Little surface preparation
• Harmful radiation
• Defect identification
• Defect require significant
• No material type limitation
depth in relation to the
• Not so reliant upon operator radiation beam (not good for
skill planar defects)
• Thin materials • Slow results
• Very little indication of depths
• Access to both sides required

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 Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES
• Good for non-planar defects

• Good for thin sections

• Gives permanent record
• Easier for 2nd party interpretation
• Can use on all material types
• High productivity
• Direct image of imperfections

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 Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
• health & safety hazard
• not good for thick sections
• high capital and relatively high running costs
• not good for planar defects
• X-ray sets not very portable
• requires access to both sides of weld
• frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)

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 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
• Surface and sub-surface detection
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
• A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the signals
on a cathode ray tube or digital display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic
pulses to travel the distance to the interface and back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital
signals UT Set,
A scan
Display

Compression probe checking the material Thickness

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 Ultrasonic Testing

defect Back wall

initial pulse echo echo

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression Probe CRT Display

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 Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set
A Scan
Display

Angle Probe

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 Ultrasonic Testing

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

½ Skip CRT Display

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

Full Skip CRT Display

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
• Rapid results • Trained and skilled operator
required
• Both surface and
• Requires high operator skill
• Sub-surface detection
• Good surface finish required
• Safe
• Defect identification
• Capable of measuring the
depth of defects • Couplant may contaminate

• May be battery powered • No permanent record

• Portable • Calibration Required

• Ferritic Material (Mostly)

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
• Good for planar defects
• Good for thick sections
• Instant results
• Can use on complex joints
• Can automate
• Very portable
• No safety problems (‘parallel’ working is possible)
• Low capital & running costs

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
• no permanent record (with standard equipment)

• not suitable for very thin joints <8mm

• reliant on operator interpretation

• not good for sizing Porosity

• good/smooth surface profile needed

• not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)

• Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)

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 Magnetic Particle testing (MT)

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
green/yellow indication
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 Magnetic Particle Testing

Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field

Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC

Prods DC or AC
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 Magnetic Particle Testing

A crack like
indication

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 Magnetic Particle Testing

Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used

for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
• Clean area to be tested
• Apply contrast paint
• Apply magnetisism to the component
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising
• Iterpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple to use • Surface or slight sub-
surface detection only
• Inexpensive
• Magnetic materials only
• Rapid results
• No indication of defects
• Little surface depths
preparation required
• Only suitable for linear
• Possible to inspect defects
through thin coatings
• Detection is required in
two directions

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
• much quicker than PT
• instant results
• can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow technique)
• less surface preparation needed

DISADVANTAGES
• only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
• electrical power for most techniques
• may need to de-magnetise (machine components)

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 Penetrant Testing (PT)

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 Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
porous.
Penetrants are available in many different types:
• Water washable Color Contrast Penetrant
• Solvent removable Color Contrast Penetrant
• Water washable fluorescent Penetrant
• Solvent removable fluorescent Penetrant
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent Penetrant
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 Penetrant Testing
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a
solvent

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
The penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time
(dwell time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 4 : Indication development / inspection
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer has
been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during development
time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is generally
required.

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 Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source

Bleed out viewed

under white light
Colour contrast Penetrant
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 Penetrant Testing

Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple to use • Surface breaking defect
only
• Inexpensive
• little indication of depths
• Quick results
• Penetrant may
• Can be used on any non- contaminate component
porous material • Surface preparation critical
• Portability • Post cleaning required
• Low operator skill required • Potentially hazardous
chemicals
• Can not test unlimited
times
• Temperature dependant
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 Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
•easy to interpret results
•no power requirements
•relatively little training required
•can use on all materials

DISADVANTAGES
•good surface finish needed
•relatively slow
•chemicals - health & safety issue
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 Welding Inspector

WPS / Welder Qualifications

Section 6

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 WPS/Welder Qualifications

 Qualified welding procedure specifications

• Welding standards for procedure qualification
• The qualification process for welding procedures
• Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS

 Welder qualification
• Welding standards for welder qualification
• The qualification process for welders
• Welder qualification and production welding allowed
• Period of validity for a welder qualification certificate
• Prolongation of welder qualification

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 Welding Procedure Qualification 6.1
Question:
What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding
Procedure Qualification Test ?
(What is the test trying to show ?)
Answer:
To show that the welded joint has the properties* that satisfy the
design requirements (fit for purpose)

* properties
• Mechanical properties are the main interest - always strength but
toughness & hardness may be important for some applications
• Test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without
defects
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 Welding Procedures 6.2

Producing a welding procedure involves:

Planning the tasks
Collecting the data
Writing a procedure for use of for trial
Making a test welds
Evaluating the results
Approving the procedure
Preparing the documentation

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 Welding Procedures 6.3
In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are to
be devised and whether approval of these procedures is
required.
The approach used for procedure approval depends on the
code:
Example codes / standards :
• AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code
• BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work
• API 1104: Welding of Pipelines & Related facility
• BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar

Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of

a procedure but may contain information that may be used in
writing a weld procedure
• EN 1011 Process of Arc Welding Steels
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 Welding Procedure Qualification 6.4

(according to EN ISO 15614)

The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure

Specifications (WPS) for production welding

Production welding conditions must remain within the range

of qualification allowed by the WPQR

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Welding Procedure Qualification 6.5

(according to EN Standards)
welding conditions are called welding variables
welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:

• Essential variables
• Non-essential variables
•Additional variables
Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on the
limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential variables*
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)

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Welding Procedure Qualification 6.6

(according to EN Standards)

WELDING ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

Question:
Why are some welding variables classified as essential ?
Answer:
A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by
the Welding Standard) may have a significant effect on the
properties* of the joint
* particularly joint strength and ductility

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 Welding Procedure Qualification 6.7
(according to EN Standards)
SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
• Welding Process
• Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
• Material Type
• Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification)
• Material Thickness
• Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC-ve)
• Pre-Heat Temperature
• Heat Input
• Welding Position

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 Welding Procedures 6.4

Components of a welding procedure

Parent material
Type (Grouping)
Thickness
Diameter (Pipes)
Surface condition)
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage

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 Welding Procedures 5.3

Components of a welding procedure

Joint design
Edge preparation
Root gap, root face
Jigging and tacking
Type of baking
Welding Position
Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
Any weather precaution
Thermal heat treatments
Preheat, temps
Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving

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 Welding Procedures 5.3

Object of a welding procedure test

To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical
and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the
applicable code/specification.
Each welding procedure will show a range to which the
procedure is approved (extent of approval)
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
supplied to prove its validity

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 Welding Procedures
Summary of designations:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)

WPAR (WPQR): Welding Procedure Approval Record

(Welding procedure Qualification record)

WPS: Welding Procedure Specification

(After procedure approval)

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 Example:
Welding
Procedure
Specification
(WPS)

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 Welder Qualification 6.8

Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification,

e.g. BS EN 287.
• Once the content of the procedure is approved the next
stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure.
• A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT).
Object of a welding qualification test:
• To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
• The test weld should be carried out on the same material and
same conditions as for the production welds.

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 Welder Qualification 6.9

(according to EN Standards)
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?

Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS

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 Welder(according
Qualification
to EN 287 )
6.10

The welder is allowed to make production welds within the

range of qualification shown on the Certificate
The range of qualification allowed for production welding is
based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
welder qualification essential variables

A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is

reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example
• a high repair rate
• not working in accordance with a qualified WPS

The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welder’s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer.

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 Welding Procedure Qualification 5.7
(according to EN ISO 15614)
Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure
Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to be made

• A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the pWPS

• A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used

for the test weld (referred to as the ‘as-run’ conditions)

An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party

inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification
process

The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with

the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard - Visual, MT or
PT & RT or UT

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 Welding Procedure Qualification 5.7
(according to EN ISO 15614)

Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,

macro)
The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional
tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some
materials - corrosion tests)

A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared

giving details of: -
• The welding conditions used for the test weld
• Results of the NDT
• Results of the destructive tests
• The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true
record

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 Welder Qualification 5.9
(according to EN 287 )

An approved WPS should be available covering the range of

qualification required for the welder approval.

• The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS

• A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the

welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS

EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner,

Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may be required to
monitor the qualification process

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 Welder Qualification 6.11

(according to EN 287 )

The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods

specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain
materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN
Standard or the Client Specification

• A Welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the

conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification
allowed by the EN Standard for production welding
• The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third
Party Inspector as a true record of the test

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 Welder Qualification 6.12

Information that should be included on a welders test certificate are,

which the welder should have or have access to a copy of !

• Welders name and identification number

• Date of test and expiry date of certificate
• Standard/code e.g. BS EN 287
• Test piece details
• Welding process.
• Welding parameters, amps, volts
• Consumables, flux type and filler classification details
• Sketch of run sequence
• Welding positions
• Joint configuration details
• Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc
• Test results, remarks
• Test location and witnessed by
• Extent (range) of approval

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 Welding Inspector

Materials Inspection
Section 7

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 Materials Inspection

 General
 Material types and weldability
 Alloying elements and their effects
 Material traceability
 Material condition and dimensions
 Summary

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 Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an
effective QA system trace them from specification and
purchase order to final documentation package handed over to
the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape

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 Material Inspection
Material type and weldability

A typical steel designation to this standard,

S355J2G3, would be classified as follows:

• S Structural steel
• 355 Minimum yield strength: N/mm² at t  16mm
• J2 Longitudinal Charpy, 27Joules 6-20°C
• G3 Normalized or normalized rolled

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 Alloying Elements and Their Effects
Iron Fe
Carbon C Strength
Manganese Mn Toughness
Silicon Si < 0.3% deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% deoxidiser +
toughness
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum Mo 1% is for creep resistance
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
Phosphorus P Residual element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying
element (strength and toughness)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying
element (strength and toughness)
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 Material Inspection
BS EN 10204: Metallic materials
Summary of types of inspection documents.

Non-specific inspection*
May be replaced by specific
inspection if specified in the material
standard or the order

Inspection document Type 2.1: Inspection document Type 2.2:

•Declaration of compliance with the •Test report.
order. •Statement of compliance with the
•Statement of compliance with the order, with indication of results of
order. non-specific inspection.
•Validated by the manufacturer. •Validated by the manufacturer.
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 Material Inspection
BS EN 10204: Metallic materials
Summary of types of inspection documents.
Specific inspection
Quality management system of the material management
system of the material manufacturer certified by a
competent body established within the community and
having undergone a specific assessment for materials

Inspection certificate Type 3.2

Statement of compliance with the order,
Inspection certificate Type 3.1
with indication of results of specific
Statement of compliance with the
inspection.
order, with indication of results of
Validated by the manufacturer’s
specific inspection
authorised inspection representative
Validated by the manufacturer’s
independent of the manufacturing
authorised inspection representative
department and either the purchaser’s
independent of the manufacturing
authorised inspection representative or
department.
the inspector designated by the official
regulations.
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There are four grades of rusting which the inspector
may have to consider:

•Rust Grade A: Steel surface •Rust Grade B: Steel surface,

largely covered with adherent mill which has begun to rust, and from
scale with little or no rust. which mill scale has begun to
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 There are four grades of rusting which the inspector
may have to consider:

•Rust Grade C: Steel surface on which •Rust Grade D: Steel surface on

the mill scale has rusted away or from which mill scale has rusted away.
which it can be scraped. Slight pitting General pitting visible under
visible under normal vision.
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 Pipe Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)

Specification LP5

Welded Size
seam

Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance,

number of plates and storage.

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 Plate Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)

Specification
5L
Size

Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage.

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 Parent Material Imperfections
Mechanical damage Lap

Lamination

Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.

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 Lapping

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 Lamination

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 Lamination

Plate Lamination

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 Welding Inspector
Codes & Standards
Section 8

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 Codes and Standards

 General
 Definitions
 Summary

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 Codes & Standards
The 3 agencies generally identified in a code or standard:
The customer, or client
The manufacturer, or contractor
The 3rd party inspection, or clients representative

Codes often do not contain all relevant data, but may refer to
other standards

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 Standard/Codes/Specifications
STANDARDS

SPECIFICATIONS CODES

Examples Examples
plate, pipe pressure vessels
forgings, castings bridges
valves pipelines
electrodes tanks

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 Welding Inspector

Welding Symbols
Section 9

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 Welding Symbols
 Standards for symbolic representation of welded joints on
drawings
 Elementary welding symbols
 Combination of elementary symbols
 Supplementary symbols
 Position of symbols on drawings
 Relationship between the arrow and joint lines
 Position of the reference line and weld symbol
 Positions of the continuous and dashed lines
 Dimensioning of welds
 Complimentary indications
 Indication of the welding process
 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4

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 Weld symbols on drawings
Advantages of symbolic representation:
simple and quick plotting on the drawing
does not over-burden the drawing
no need for additional view
gives all necessary indications regarding the specific
joint to be obtained

Disadvantages of symbolic representation:

used only for usual joints
requires training for properly understanding of symbols

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 Weld symbols on drawings

The symbolic representation includes:

an arrow line
a reference line
an elementary symbol

The elementary symbol may be completed by:

a supplementary symbol
a means of showing dimensions
some complementary indications

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 Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to the
left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on the
right side
BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)

AWS A2.4
• In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
• In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of
the joint preparation

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 Weld symbols on drawings
A method of transferring information from the
design office to the workshop is:

Please weld
here

The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone.

Most countries have their own standards for symbols.

Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)

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 Weld symbols on drawings
Joints in drawings may be indicated:
•by detailed sketches, showing every dimension

•by symbolic representation

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 Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)

Convention of the elementary symbols:

Various categories of joints are characterised by an elementary
symbol.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double bevel
butts and a J-butt welds must always be on the left side.

Weld type Sketch Symbol

Square edge
butt weld

Single-v
butt weld
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 Elementary Welding Symbols

Weld type Sketch Symbol

Single-V butt
weld with broad
root face
Single
bevel butt
weld
Single bevel
butt weld with
broad root
face
Backing run

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 Elementary Welding Symbols

Weld type Sketch Symbol

Single-U
butt weld

Single-J
butt weld

Surfacing

Fillet weld

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553

Plug weld Square Butt weld

Resistance spot weld Steep flanked

Single-V Butt

Resistance seam weld Surfacing

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 Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
Convention of the arrow line:
• Shall touch the joint intersection
• Shall not be parallel to the drawing
• Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only
one plate has preparation)

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 Reference Line
(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing

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 Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Convention of the reference line:
• Shall touch the arrow line
• Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
• There shall be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!)

or

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 Double side weld symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from both sides of the joint
intersection, touched by the arrow head

Fillet weld Double bevel Double J

Double V Double U

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Reference lines
(Continuous line)
Identification line
(Dashed lines)

Arrow line
Other side Arrow side

Arrow side Other side

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
MR
M

Single-V Butt with Single-U Butt with

permanent backing strip removable backing strip

Single-V Butt flush cap Single-U Butt with sealing run

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553

Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt

Single-bevel butt Single-J butt

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553

s10

10
15

Partial penetration single-V butt

‘S’ indicates the depth of penetration
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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)

a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553

Arrow side

Arrow side

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s6

6mm fillet weld

Other side

s6

Other side

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
n = number of weld elements
l = length of each weld element
(e) = distance between each weld element

n x l (e)

Welds to be
staggered
2 x 40 (50)
111
3 x 40 (50)
Process

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z5 3 x 80 (90)

z6 3 x 80 (90)

5
80 80 80
5

6 90 90 90

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm

z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
6
80 80 80
6

8 90 90
90

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 Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions
Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only)
Site Weld

Concave or Convex

Weld all round

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 Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
Ground flush

111
MR M

Removable Permanent Welding process

backing strip backing strip numerical BS EN

Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or

NDT may be placed in the fish tail
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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553

a b

c d

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553

Mitre Convex

Toes
Concave
shall be
blended
21/10/2012 274 of 740
 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)

a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat

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 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Complimentary Symbols

Field weld (site weld) Welding to be carried out

all round component
(peripheral weld)

NDT WPS

The component requires Additional information,

NDT inspection the reference document
is included in the box

21/10/2012 276 of 740

 ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
111: MMA welding with covered electrode
121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIG welding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding
72: Electro-slag welding
15: Plasma arc welding

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 AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols

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 AWS Welding Symbols

Depth of Root Opening

Bevel

1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o

Effective Groove Angle

Throat

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 AWS Welding Symbols

Welding Process

GSFCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o

GMAW
GTAW
SAW

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 AWS Welding Symbols
Welds to be
staggered

3 – 10
SMAW
3 – 10
Process

3 3

10
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 AWS Welding Symbols

3rd Operation
Sequence of
Operations 2nd Operation

1st Operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o

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 AWS Welding Symbols

RT
Sequence of
Operations MT
MT
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o

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 AWS Welding Symbols
Dimensions- Leg Length

6 leg on member A
6/8

Member A 6

Member B
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 Welding Inspector

Intro To Welding Processes

Section 10

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 Introduction to Welding Processes

 General
 Productivity
 Heat input
 Welding parameters
 Power source characteristics

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 Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work pieces
are in atomic contact

Pressure welding Fusion welding

• Forge welding • Oxy-acetylene
• Friction welding • MMA (SMAW)
• Resistance Welding • MIG/MAG (GMAW)
• TIG (GTAW)
• Sub-arc (SAW)
• Electro-slag (ESW)
• Laser Beam (LBW)
• Electron-Beam (EBW)

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 Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
100
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for
90
arc initiation
80

Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma

70
arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS
60
Voltage

50

40 Large voltage variation, e.g. +

Normal Operating 10v (due to changes in arc
30 Voltage Range length)
Small amperage change
20
resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. + 5A.
10

20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200

Amperage
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 Monitoring Heat Input
Heat Input:
The amount of heat generated in the
welding arc per unit length of weld.
Expressed in kilo Joules per millimetre
length of weld (kJ/mm).
Heat Input (HI) for arc welding is calculated as
bellow:

Arc Energy (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps

Travel speed (mm/s) x 1000
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 Monitoring Heat Input
Heat input values into the weld for various processes can
be calculated from the arc energy by multiplying by the
following thermal efficiency factors:

• SAW (Wire electrode) 1.0

• MMA (Covered electrode) 0.8
• MIG/MAG 0.8
• FCAW (wire or without gas shield) 0.8
• TIG 0.8
• Plasma 0.6

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 Monitoring Heat Input
Heat input values into the weld for various processes can be
calculated from the arc energy by multiplying by the following
thermal efficiency factors:

Arc Energy (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps

Travel speed (mm/s) x 1000

Heat Input =
Heat Input value according to welding process x Arc Energy

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 Monitoring Heat Input

Weld and weld pool temperatures

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 Monitoring Heat Input

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 Monitoring Heat Input
Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are
specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the highest
heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the weld
in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for all positions

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 Welding Inspector
MMA Welding
Section 11

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 Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (MMA/SMAW)

 Manual metal arc welding (MMA) basic equipment

requirements
 Power requirements
 Welding variables
 Summary of MMA/SMAW

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 MMA - Principle of operation

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 MMA welding

Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
Electrode consumable
Manual process

Welder controls:
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Amperage settings
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 Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment

Control panel Power source

(amps, volts)

Electrode Holding oven

oven
Electrodes Inverter power
source
Return lead
Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass Power cables

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 MMA Welding Plant
Transformer:
• Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding.
Has no moving parts and is often termed static plant.
Rectifier:
• Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved.
Generator:
• Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature
rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a
constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the absence of
electrical power, by an internal combustion engine.
Inverter:
• An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency.

21/10/2012 309 of 740

 Voltage
MMA Welding Variables
• The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to the
arc as possible. It is variable with a change in arc length.
• Welding voltage between 20 and 30V to maintain the arc during
the arc during welding
O.C.V.
• The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or re-
ignite the electrical arc and will change with the type of electrode
being used e.g. 50-90 volts
Current
• The current used will be determined by the choice of electrode,
electrode diameter and material type and thickness. Current has
the most effect on penetration.
• The suitable current range, typically 30 ~ 350 amps.
Polarity
• Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode type
e.g DC +ve, DC –ve or AC
21/10/2012 310 of 740
 Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
100

O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc

90
initiation
80

70

60
Voltage

50

40 Large voltage variation, e.g. +

Normal Operating 10v (due to changes in arc
30 Voltage Range length)
Small amperage change
20
resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. + 5A.
10

20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200

Amperage
21/10/2012 312 of 740
 MMA welding parameters
Travel speed

Travel
Too slow speed Too Fast

•Wide/ irregular weld •Poor fusion

bead contour •incomplete root
•Cold lap penetration
•excess weld deposition •Undercut
•burn-through •Narrow, Thin weld
bead
•undercut
•poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal
cause slag inclusion

21/10/2012 313 of 740

 MMA welding parameters
Type of current:
voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are coiled
cheaper power source for AC
no problems with arc blow with AC
DC provides a more stable and easy to strike arc,
especially with low current, better positional weld, thin
sheet applications
welding with a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier
with DC, better mechanical properties
DC provides a smoother metal transfer, less spatter

21/10/2012 314 of 740

 MMA welding parameters
Welding current
– approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
– governed by thickness, type of joint and welding
position

Welding
Too low current Too high

•poor starting •spatter

•slag inclusions •excess
•weld bead contour too penetration
high •undercut
•lack of •burn-through
fusion/penetration

21/10/2012 315 of 740

 MMA welding parameters
Arc length = arc voltage
Arc
Too low voltage Too high

•arc can be extinguished •spatter

•“stubbing” •porosity
•excess
penetration
•undercut
•burn-through

Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration

21/10/2012 316 of 740

 MMA - Troubleshooting

MMA quality (left to right)

current, arc length and travel speed normal;
current too low;
current too high;
arc length too short;
arc length too long;
travel speed too slow;
21/10/2012 travel speed too high 317 of 740
 MMA electrode holder

“Tongs” type with

Collet or twist type
spring-loaded jaws
21/10/2012 318 of 740
 MMA Welding Consumables

MMA Covered Electrodes

The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding

• Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion

• Rutile - general purpose
• Basic - low hydrogen
(Covered in more detail in Section 14)

21/10/2012 319 of 740

 MMA welding typical defects
Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder skill
(not an easily controlled process), the incorrect settings of the
equipment, or the incorrect use, and treatment of electrodes

Typical Welding Defects:

•Slag inclusions
•Arc strikes
•Porosity
•Undercut
•Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)

21/10/2012 320 of 740

 Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
Advantages:
• Field or shop use
• Range of consumables
• All positions
• Portable
• Simple equipment

Disadvantages:
• High welder skill required
• High levels of fume
• Hydrogen control (flux)
• Stop/start problems
• Comparatively uneconomic when compared with some other
processes i.e. MAG, SAW and FCAW

21/10/2012 321 of 740

 Welding Inspector
TIG Welding
Section 12

21/10/2012 322 of 740

 TIG Welding

 Process characteristics
 Filler wires
 Tungsten inclusions
 Crater cracking
 Common applications
 Advantages
 Disadvantages

21/10/2012 323 of 740

 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA
during the 2nd world war for the welding of aluminum alloys
• The process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
• The process requires a high level of welder skill
• The process produces very high quality welds.
• The TIG process is considered as a slow process compared
to other arc welding processes
• The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to avoid scratch
starting, which could cause contamination of the tungsten
and weld

21/10/2012 324 of 740

 TIG - Principle of operation

21/10/2012 325 of 740

 TIG Welding Variables
Voltage

Current type & Polarity

Travel speed

Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle

Shielding gas flow rate

Electrode extension

21/10/2012 328 of 740

 TIG Welding Variables
Voltage
The Arc voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by
the type of gas being used, any changes in the arc length and
The soundness of the connections. ( typically > 14.7 V with
Argon gas used )

Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten
electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the
deeper the penetration and fusion

Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC –ve as most of the
heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep
the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When
welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used
21/10/2012 329 of 740
 Types Of GTAW Power Source
Provides Electric Energy – Arc – Heat

Drooping Characteristic

Inverter- DC

Thyrester – DC

Motor Generator – DC

Rectifier – DC

Transformer – AC (For Aluminum Welding Only)

21/10/2012 330 of 740
 Characteristic Of GTAW
Power Source
Drooping – Constant Current

V1
Vertical Curve
V2

A
A1 A2

21/10/2012 331 of 740

 High Frequency Unit
Provides High Voltage Electric Energy With
Very high Frequency – 10000 Cycles / Sec.

Initiates low energy Arc / Spark & Ionize Air

Gap.

Electrically charges Air Gap For welding

Current to Jump Across the Tungsten Tip &
BM to Form An Arc.

HF Gets Cut Off, Once Welding Arc Struck.

21/10/2012 332 of 740
 Water Cooling System

Provides Cooling Water To Welding Torch.

Cools Tungsten Rod, Torch handle & Welding

Cable.

Cooling Water Returns through Flexible Tube

Which Carries welding cable within.

21/10/2012 333 of 740

 Types of current
DC can be DCEN or DCEP
DCEN gives deep penetration

AC can be sine or square wave

Type of requires a HF current (continuos
welding or periodical)
current provide cleaning action

Pulsed requires special power source

current low frequency - up to 20
pulses/sec (thermal pulsing)
better weld pool control
weld pool partially solidifies
21/10/2012 between pulses 334 of 740
 Choosing the proper electrode
Current type influence

+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -

Current type & polarity DCEN AC (balanced) DCEP

Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 35% at work

30% at electrode 50% at electrode 65% at electrode
Penetration Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
Oxide cleaning action No Yes - every half cycle Yes
Electrode capacity Excellent Good Poor
(e.g. 3,2 mm/400A) (e.g. 3,2 mm/225A) (e.g. 6,4 mm/120A)

21/10/2012 335 of 740

 ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic

Large change in voltage =

OCV Smaller change in amperage

Volts
Large arc gap
Welding Voltage

Small arc
gap

Amps

21/10/2012 336 of 740

 TIG - arc initiation methods
Arc initiation
method
Lift arc HF start
simple method need a HF generator (spark-
tungsten electrode is in contact gap oscillator) that generates a
with the workpiece!
high voltage AC output (radio
high initial arc current due to
the short circuit frequency) costly
impractical to set arc length in reliable method required on
advance both DC (for start) and AC (to
electrode should tap the re-ignite the arc)
workpiece - no scratch!
can be used remotely
ineffective in case of AC
used when a high quality is not HF produce interference
essential requires superior insulation

21/10/2012 337 of 740

 Pulsed current
usually peak current is 2-10
Pulse Cycle Peak Background times background current
Current (A)

time time current current useful on metals sensitive to

high heat input
reduced distortions
in case of dissimilar thicknesses
equal penetration can be
achieved

Average current
Time
one set of variables can be used in all positions
used for bridging gaps in open root joints
require special power source

21/10/2012 338 of 740

 Choosing the proper electrode

Polarity Influence – cathodic cleaning effect

21/10/2012 339 of 740

 Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
• Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium

New types: (Not Radioactive)

• Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium

21/10/2012 340 of 740

 TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension

Stickout 2-3 times

electrode
Electrode diameter
extension

Low electron Overheating

Too Electrode Too
emission Tungsten
small extension large
Unstable arc inclusions
21/10/2012 341 of 740
 Choosing the correct electrode
Polarity Influence – cathodic cleaning effect

21/10/2012 342 of 740

 Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
• Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium

New types: (Not Radioactive)

• Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium

21/10/2012 343 of 740

 Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:
colour code - green
no alloy additions
low current carrying capacity
maintains a clean balled end
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
with other electrode types
used on less critical applications
low cost
21/10/2012 344 of 740
 Tungsten electrode types
Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - yellow/red/violet
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes
longer life - greater resistance to contamination
thermionic - easy arc initiation, more stable arc
maintain a sharpened tip
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
This slightly radioactive
21/10/2012 345 of 740
 Tungsten electrode types
Ceriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - grey (orange acc. AWS A-5.12)
operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive - replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - black/gold/blue
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode

21/10/2012 346 of 740

 Tungsten electrode types
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - brown/white
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
and thoriated electrodes
retains a balled end during welding - good for AC
welding
high resistance to contamination
preferred for radiographic quality welds

21/10/2012 347 of 740

 Electrode tip for DCEN
Penetration
increase
electrode diameter

Increase
2-2,5 times

Vertex
angle

Decrease

Bead width
increase
Electrode tip prepared for low Electrode tip prepared for high
current welding current welding
21/10/2012 348 of 740
 Electrode tip for AC
DC -ve AC

Electrode tip ground and

Electrode tip ground
then conditioned
21/10/2012 349 of 740
 TIG Welding Variables
Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical
factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is
as shown

DC -ve AC

Vetex angle
Note: when welding
Note: too fine an angle will aluminium with AC
promote melting of the current, the tungsten end
electrodes tip is chamfered and forms a
ball end when welding
21/10/2012 350 of 740
 Choosing the proper electrode
Factors to be considered:

Electrode tip Excessive

Too Welding Too
not properly melting or
low current high
heated volatilisation

Unstable Tungsten
arc Penetration inclusions

21/10/2012 351 of 740

 Shielding gas requirements
Shielding gas flow
Preflow and
postflow Welding current

Preflow Postflow

Flow rate Flow rate

too low too high

21/10/2012 353 of 740

 Special shielding methods
Pipe root run shielding – Back Purging to prevent
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.

21/10/2012 354 of 740

 TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension

Stickout 2-3 times

electrode
Electrode diameter
extension

Low electron Overheating

Too Electrode Too
emission Tungsten
small extension large
Unstable arc inclusions
21/10/2012 355 of 740
 TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:
• Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
• Filler wires of different materials composition and
variable diameters available in standard lengths, with
applicable code stamped for identification
• Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper
coating to resist corrosion.
• shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of
highest purity (99.9%).

21/10/2012 356 of 740

 Tungsten Inclusion

May be caused by Thermal Shock

of heating to fast and small
fragments break off and enter the
weld pool, so a “slope up” device is
normally fitted to prevent this could
be caused by touch down also.
Most TIG sets these days have
slope-up devices that brings the
current to the set level over a short
period of time so the tungsten is
heated more slowly and gently

A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as

bright white on a radiograph

21/10/2012 357 of 740

 TIG typical defects
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of
welder skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e.
current, torch manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate,
etc.

• Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)

• Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
• Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
• Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
• Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
• Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)

21/10/2012 358 of 740

 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
Advantages Disadvantages
High quality High skill factor required
Good control Low deposition rate
All positions Small consumable
range
Lowest H2 process
High protection required
Minimal cleaning
Complex equipment
Autogenous welding
Low productivity
(No filler material)
High ozone levels +HF
Can be automated
21/10/2012 359 of 740
 Welding Inspector
MIG/MAG Welding
Section 13

21/10/2012 360 of 740

 MIG/MAG Welding

 Process
 Process variables
 MIG welding – basic equipment requirements
 Inspection when MIG/MAG welding
 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
 Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG

21/10/2012 361 of 740

 Gas Metal Arc Welding
The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the
USA in the late 1940s for the welding of aluminum alloys.
The latest EN Welding Standards now refer the process by the
American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
• The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode
• The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied
shielding gas
• The process is classified as a semi-automatic welding
process but may be fully automated
• The wire electrode can be either bare/solid wire or flux
cored hollow wire

21/10/2012 362 of 740

 MIG/MAG - Principle of operation

21/10/2012 363 of 740

 MIG/MAG process variables
Welding current

•Increasing welding current

•Increase in depth and width
•Increase in deposition rate

Polarity

21/10/2012 365 of 740

 MIG/MAG process variables

Arc voltage

•Increasing arc voltage

•Reduced penetration, increased width
•Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut

Travel speed
•Increasing travel speed
•Reduced penetration and width, undercut
21/10/2012 366 of 740
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
Types of Shielding Gas
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
• Inert Gas is required for all non-ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni)
• Most common inert gas is Argon
• Argon + Helium used to give a ‘hotter’ arc - better for thicker
joints and alloys with higher thermal conductivity

21/10/2012 368 of 740

 MIG/MAG – shielding gases
Type of material Shielding gas

Carbon steel CO2 , Ar+(5-20)%CO2

Stainless steel Ar+2%O2

Aluminium Ar

21/10/2012 369 of 740

 MIG/MAG shielding gases
Ar Ar-He He CO2

Argon (Ar):
higher density than air; low thermal conductivity the
arc has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the
toes; low ionisation potential
Helium (He):
lower density than air; high thermal conductivity
uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high
ionisation potential
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
21/10/2012 370 of 740
 MIG/MAG shielding gases
Gases for dip transfer:
CO2: carbon steels only: deep penetration; fast welding
speed; high spatter levels
Ar + up to 25% CO2: carbon and low alloy steels:
minimum spatter; good wetting and bead contour
90% He + 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO2:stainless steels:
minimises undercut; small HAZ
Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections
Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on
thicker sections (over 3 mm)

21/10/2012 371 of 740

 MIG/MAG shielding gases
Gases for spray transfer
Ar + (5-18)% CO2: carbon steels: minimum spatter;
good wetting and bead contour
Ar + 2% O2: low alloy steels: minimise undercut;
provides good toughness
Ar + 2% O2 or CO2: stainless steels: improved arc
stability; provides good fusion
Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys
Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys: hotter arc
than pure Ar to offset heat dissipation
Ar + (25-30)% N2: Cu alloys: greater heat input

21/10/2012 372 of 740

 Gas Metal Arc Welding
Types of Shielding Gas
MAG (Metal Active Gas)
Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Argon with a small % of active gas is required for all
steels (including stainless steels) to ensure a stable
arc & good droplet wetting into the weld pool
Typical active gases are
Ar + 20% CO2 for C-Mn & low alloy steels
Ar + 2% O2 for stainless steels
100% CO2 can be used for C - steels
21/10/2012 373 of 740
 MIG/MAG Gas Metal Arc Welding

Electrode
orientation

Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum

Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum

Electrode extension
•Increased extension
21/10/2012 374 of 740
 MIG / MAG - self-regulating
arc
Stable condition Sudden change in gun position
Arc length L = 6,4 mm Arc length L’ = 12,7 mm
Arc voltage = 24V Arc voltage = 29V
Welding current = 250A Welding current = 220A
WFS = 6,4 m/min WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min Melt off rate = 5,6
m/min
L’ 25 mm
L 19 mm
Voltage (V)

Current (A)

21/10/2012 375 of 740

 MIG/MAG - self-regulating arc
Sudden change in gun position Re-established stable condition
Arc length L’ = 12,7 mm Arc length L = 6,4 mm
Arc voltage = 29V Arc voltage = 24V
Welding current = 220A Welding current = 250A
WFS = 6,4 m/min WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 5,6 m/min Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min

L’ 25 mm 25 mm
L
Voltage (V)

Current (A)

21/10/2012 376 of 740

 Terminating the arc
Crater fill
Burnback time
– delayed current cut-off to prevent wire freeze
in the weld end crater
– depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)

Contact tip
Current - 250A
3 mm
8 mm Voltage - 27V
14 mm WFS - 7,8 m/min
Insulating
Wire diam. - 1,2 mm
slag
Shielding gas -
Burn back time 0.05 sec 0.10 sec 0.15 sec Ar+18%CO2
Work piece

21/10/2012 377 of 740

 MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes

Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip recessed extension
extension Electrode
(3-5 mm) 19-25 mm
(0-3,2 mm) extension
6-13 mm

Set-up for dip transfer Set-up for spray transfer

21/10/2012 378 of 740

 MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
Voltage
WFS = 8,3 m/min
Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V

Globular Spray
transfer transfer

Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm

WFS = 3,2 m/min
Current = 145 A

Dip transfer Voltage = 18-20V

Current

21/10/2012
Current/voltage conditions 380 of 740
 MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Dip transfer
Transfer occur due to short circuits
between wire and weld pool, high
level of spatter, need inductance
control to limit current raise
Can use pure CO2 or Ar- CO2
mixtures as shielding gas
Metal transfer occur when arc is
extinguished
Requires low welding current/arc
voltage, a low heat input process.
Resulting in low residual stress
and distortion
Used for thin materials and all
position welds
21/10/2012 382 of 740
 MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Spray transfer
Transfer occur due to pinch
effect NO contact between wire
and weld pool!
Requires argon-rich shielding
gas
Metal transfer occur in small
droplets, a large volume weld
pool
Requires high welding
current/arc voltage, a high heat
input process. Resulting in high
residual stress and distortion
Used for thick materials and
flat/horizontal position welds
21/10/2012 385 of 740
 MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer, one droplet per pulse,
No transfer between droplet and weld pool!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal
to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, a
reduced heat input . Resulting in smaller residual
stress and distortion compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool,
used for root runs and out of position welds
21/10/2012 386 of 740
 MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Pulsed transfer

Controlled metal transfer. one droplet

per pulse. NO transfer during
background current!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets
(diameter equal to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, reduced
heat input’ smaller residual stress and distortions
compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used
for root runs and out of position welds
21/10/2012 387 of 740
 MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Globular transfer
Transfer occur due to gravity or
short circuits between drops and
weld pool
Requires CO2 shielding gas
Metal transfer occur in large drops
(diameter larger than that of
electrode) hence severe spatter
Requires high welding current/arc
voltage, a high heat input process.
Resulting in high residual stress
and distortion
Non desired mode of transfer!

21/10/2012 389 of 740

Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic

Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With

MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps
O.C.V. Arc Voltage
Virtually no Change.
33

32

31
Small Voltage
Change.
Voltage
Large Current Change

100 200 300

Amperage

21/10/2012 394 of 740

 MIG/MAG welding gun assembly
Gas The Push-Pull gun
Contact diffuser
tip

Union nut

Trigger WFS remote

Gas
control
nozzle
potentiometer
Handle

21/10/2012 395 of 740

 Gas Metal Arc Welding
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
• Requires a constant voltage power source, gas supply, wire
feeder, welding torch/gun and ‘hose package’
• Wire is fed continuously through the conduit and is burnt-off
at a rate that maintains a constant arc length/arc voltage
• Wire feed speed is directly related to burn-off rate
• Wire burn-off rate is directly related to current
• When the welder holds the welding gun the process is said
to be a semi-automatic process
• The process can be mechanised and also automated
• In Europe the process is usually called MIG or MAG

21/10/2012 397 of 740

 MIG/MAG typical defects
Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of
welder skill, or incorrect settings of the equipment
•Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
•Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc
•Silica inclusions (in Fe steels) due to poor inter-run cleaning
•Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer)
•Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)
•Solidification problems (cracking, centerline pipes, crater
pipes) especially on deep narrow welds

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 WELDING PROCESS

Flux Core Arc Welding

(Not In The Training Manual)

21/10/2012 402 of 740

 Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
methods

With gas Without gas With metal

shielding - shielding - powder -
“Outershield” “Innershield” “Metal core”

21/10/2012 403 of 740

 “Outershield” - principle of operation

21/10/2012 404 of 740

 “Innershield” - principle of operation

21/10/2012 405 of 740

 ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic

OCV Small change in voltage =

large change in amperage
Large arc gap

Small arc gap

The self
Volts adjusting arc.

Amps

21/10/2012 406 of 740

 Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)

Flux core Insulated extension nozzle

Current carrying guild tube

Wire joint
Flux cored hollow wire

Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
Flux core compounds
wires

Molten
weld Metal droplets covered
Solidified weld pool
with thin slag coating
metal and slag
21/10/2012 407 of 740
 Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
methods

With gas Without gas With metal

shielding - shielding - powder -
“Outershield” “Innershield” “Metal core”
(114)

With active With inert gas

gas shielding shielding (137)
(136)
21/10/2012 408 of 740
FCAW - differences from MIG/MAG
usually operates in DCEP
but some “Innershield”
wires operates in DCEN
power sources need to
be more powerful due to
the higher currents
doesn't work in deep
transfer mode
require knurled feed rolls

“Innershield” wires use

a different type of
welding gun
21/10/2012 409 of 740
 Backhand (“drag”) technique
Advantages
preferred method for flat or horizontal position
slower progression of the weld
deeper penetration
weld stays hot longer, easy to remove dissolved
gasses
Disadvantages
produce a higher weld profile
difficult to follow the weld joint
can lead to burn-through on thin sheet plates
21/10/2012 410 of 740
 Forehand (“push”) technique
Advantages
preferred method for vertical up or overhead
position
arc is directed towards the unwelded joint , preheat
effect
easy to follow the weld joint and control the
penetration
Disadvantages
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration
the amount of spatter can increase

21/10/2012 411 of 740

 FCAW advantages
less sensitive to lack of fusion
requires smaller included angle compared to MMA
high productivity
all positional
smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut
basic types produce excellent toughness properties
good control of the weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires
seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free
ease of varying the alloying constituents
no need for shielding gas

21/10/2012 412 of 740

 FCAW disadvantages
limited to steels and Ni-base alloys
slag covering must be removed
FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis
than solid wires (exception: some high alloy steels)
for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be
affected by winds and drafts
more smoke and fumes are generated compared
with MIG/MAG
in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to
break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of
insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)

21/10/2012 413 of 740

FCAW advantages/disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:

1) Field or shop use 1) High skill factor

2) High productivity 2) Slag inclusions

3) All positional 3) Cored wire is

Expensive
4) Slag supports and
shapes the weld Bead 4) High level of fume
(Inner-shield)
5) No need for shielding
gas 5) Limited to steels and
nickel alloys

21/10/2012 414 of 740

 Welding Inspector
Submerged Arc Welding
Section 14

21/10/2012 415 of 740

 Submerged Arc Welding

 Process

 Fluxes

 Process variables

 Storage and care of consumables

 Power sources

21/10/2012 416 of 740

Submerged Arc Welding Introduction
• Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union
during the 2nd world war for the welding of thick section steel.
• The process is normally mechanized.
• The process uses amps in the range of 100 to over 2000, which
gives a very high current density in the wire producing deep
penetration and high dilution welds.
• A flux is supplied separately via a flux hopper in the form of either
fused or agglomerated.
• The arc is not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux layer
and no eye protection is required.

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 SAW Principle of operation

21/10/2012 418 of 740

 Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW :
• chemical composition and mechanical properties
required for the weld deposit
• thickness of base metal to be welded
• joint accessibility
• position in which the weld is to be made
• frequency or volume of welding to be performed

SAW methods

Semiautomatic Mechanised Automatic

21/10/2012 419 of 740

 Submerged Arc Welding
Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Power
supply

- +

Slide rail
Wire electrode

Flux

21/10/2012 420 of 740

 SAW process variables
• welding current
• current type and polarity
• welding voltage
• travel speed
• electrode size
• electrode extension
• width and depth of the layer of flux

21/10/2012 421 of 740

 SAW process variables
Welding current
•controls depth of penetration and the amount of
base metal melted & dilution

21/10/2012 422 of 740

 SAW operating variables
Current type and polarity

•Usually DCEP, deep

penetration, better
resistance to
porosity
•DCEN increase
deposition rate but
reduce penetration
(surfacing)
•AC used to avoid
arc blow; can give
unstable arc
21/10/2012 423 of 740
 SAW Consumables
(Covered in detail in Section 14)

Fused fluxes advantages:

•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
•normally not hygroscopic & easy storage and handling
•readily recycled without significant change in particle
size or composition

Fused fluxes disadvantages:

•difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
•high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the
range of flux compositions

21/10/2012 424 of 740

 SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
• easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• colour identification

Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

• tendency to absorb moisture
• possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
• possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles

21/10/2012 425 of 740

 SAW equipment
Power sources can be:
• transformers for AC
• transformer-rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be:
• Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources
• Constant Current (drooping)

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 SAW equipment
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:
• most commonly used supplies for SAW
• can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
• self-regulating arc
• simple wire feed speed control
• wire feed speed controls the current and power supply
controls the voltage
• applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc
blow (also thin wires!)

21/10/2012 427 of 740

 ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic

OCV Small change in voltage =

large change in amperage
Large arc gap

Small arc gap

The self
Volts adjusting arc.

Amps

21/10/2012 428 of 740

 SAW equipment
Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources:
• Over 1000A - very fast speed required - control of burn off
rate and stick out length
• can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
• not self-regulating arc
• must be used with a voltage-sensing variable wire feed
speed control
• more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed
control
• arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power
source controls the current
• cannot be used for high-speed welding of thin steel

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 SAW equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage
• provides travel along straight or
gently curved joints
• can ride on tracks set up along the
joint (with grooved wheels) or on
the workpiece itself Courtesy of ESAB AB

• can use guide wheels as tracking

device
• due to their portability, are used in
field welding or where the piece
cannot be moved

Courtesy of ESAB AB
21/10/2012 430 of 740
 SAW operating variables
Welding current
•too high current: excessive excess weld metal
(waste of electrode), increase weld shrinkage and
causes greater distortions
•excessively high current: digging arc, undercut,
burn through; also a high and narrow bead &
solidification cracking
•too low current: incomplete
fusion or inadequate penetration
•excessively low current:
unstable arc

21/10/2012 431 of 740

 SAW operating variables
Welding voltage
•welding voltage controls arc
length
•increase in voltage produce a
flatter and wider bead
•increase in voltage increase
flux consumption
•increase in voltage tend to
reduce porosity
•an increased voltage may
help bridging an excessive
root gap
•an increased voltage can increase pick-up of alloying elements
from an alloy flux
21/10/2012 432 of 740
 SAW operating variables
Welding voltage

•low voltage produce a

“stiffer” arc & improves
penetration in a deep
weld groove and resists
arc blow
•excessive low voltage
produce a high narrow
bead & difficult slag
removal

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 SAW operating variables
Welding voltage

•excessively high voltage

produce a “hat-shaped” bead
& tendency to crack

•excessively high voltage

increase undercut & make slag
removal difficult in groove
welds

•excessively high voltage

produce a concave fillet weld
that is subject to cracking
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 SAW operating variables
Travel speed
•increase in travel speed: decrease heat input & less
filler metal applied per unit of length, less excess
weld metal & weld bead becomes smaller

21/10/2012 435 of 740

 SAW operating variables
Travel speed

•excessively high speed

lead to undercut, arc
blow and porosity

•excessively low speed

produce “hat-shaped” beads
danger of cracking

•excessively low speed produce rough beads and

lead to slag inclusions

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 SAW operating variables
Electrode size
•at the same current, small electrodes have higher
current density & higher deposition rates

21/10/2012 437 of 740

 SAW operating variables
Electrode extension
•increased electrode extension adds resistance in the
welding circuit I increase in deposition rate, decrease in
penetration and bead width

•to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is

increased, voltage must also be increased
•when burn-through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase
electrode extension
•excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to
maintain the electrode tip in the correct position

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 SAW operating variables
Depth of flux
•depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld
•usually, depth of flux is 25-30 mm
•if flux layer is to deep the arc is too confined, result is
a rough ropelike appearing weld
•if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the
surface of molten weld metal becomes irregularly
distorted
•if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will
occur, give a poor appearance and porous weld

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 SAW technological variables
Travel angle effect - Butt weld on plates

Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Tendency to undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
21/10/2012 443 of 740
 SAW technological variables
Earth position +

Direction of
travel

•welding towards earth produces backward arc blow

•deep penetration
•convex weld profile

21/10/2012 444 of 740

 SAW technological variables
Earth position
+

Direction of
travel

•welding away earth produces forward arc blow

•normal penetration depth
•smooth, even weld profile

21/10/2012 445 of 740

 Weld backing

Backing strip

Backing weld

Copper backing

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 Starting/finishing the weld

21/10/2012 447 of 740

 SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding •two electrodes are feed
into the same weld pool
•wire diameter usually 1,6 to
3,2 mm
•electrodes are connected
to a single power source & a
single arc is established
•normally operate with
DCEP
•offers increased deposition
rate by up to 80% compared
to single wire SAW
21/10/2012 448 of 740
 SAW variants

Wires can be oriented

for maximum or
minimum penetration

21/10/2012 449 of 740

 SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process •usually DCEP on lead
and AC on trail to reduce
arc blow
•requires two separate
power sources
•the electrodes are active
in the same puddle BUT
there are 2 separate arcs
•increased deposition
rate by up to 100%
compared with single
wire SAW
21/10/2012 450 of 740
 SAW variants
SAW tandem arc
with two wires

Courtesy of ESAB AB

21/10/2012 451 of 740

 SAW variants

Single pool - highest deposition rate

Twin pool - travel speed limited by undercut;

21/10/2012
very resistant to porosity and cracks 452 of 740
 SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires

•only for welding thick

sections (>30 mm)
•not suitable for use in
narrow weld
preparations (root
passes)
•one 4 mm wire at 600 A,
6.8 kg/hr
•tandem two 4 mm wires
Courtesy of ESAB AB at 600 A, 13.6 kg/hr

21/10/2012 453 of 740

 SAW variants
Strip cladding needs a
special welding head

21/10/2012 454 of 740

 SAW variants
Narrow gap welding
•for welding thick
materials
•less filler metal required
•requires special groove
preparation and special
welding head
•requires special fluxes,
otherwise problems with
slag removal
•defect removal is very
difficult

21/10/2012 455 of 740

 SAW variants
Hot wire welding

•the hot wire is connected to power source & much

more efficient than cold wire (current is used entirely
to heat the wire!)
•increase deposition rates
up to 100%
•requires additional
welding equipment,
additional control of
variables, considerable
set-up time and closer
operator attention

21/10/2012 457 of 740

 SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition

•increased deposition rates up to

70%; increased welding speed
•gives smooth fusion, improved
bead appearance, reduced
penetration and dilution from parent
metal & higher impact strength
•metal powders can modify
chemical composition of final weld
deposit
•does not increase risk of cracking
•do not require additional arc energy
•metal powder can be added ahead
or directly into the weld pool

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 SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
•magnetic attachment of powder

•SAW with metal cored wires

21/10/2012 459 of 740

 SAW variants
Storage tank
SAW of circular
welds

Courtesy of ESAB AB

21/10/2012 460 of 740

 Advantages of SAW
• high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times
those for MMA), high productivity
• deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves
• fast travel speed, less distortion
• deslagging is easier
• uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good
fatigue properties
• can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty
cycle and low skill level required
• provide consistent quality when performed automatic or
mechanised
• Virtually assured radiographically sound welds
• arc is not visible
• little smoke/fumes are developed
21/10/2012 462 of 740
 Submerged Arc Welding

Advantages Disadvantages
• Low weld-metal cost • Restricted welding
positions
• Easily automated
• Arc blow on DC
• Low levels of ozone current
• High productivity • Shrinkage defects
• No visible arc light • Difficult penetration
control
• Minimum cleaning
• Limited joints

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 Welding Inspector
Thermal Cutting Processes
Section 15

21/10/2012 465 of 740

 Thermal Cutting Processes

 Oxy-fuel cutting

 Plasma arc cutting

 Arc air gouging

 Manual metal arc gouging

21/10/2012 466 of 740

 Use of gas flame

Welding Brazing Cutting Gouging

Heating Straightening Blasting Spraying

21/10/2012 467 of 740
 Regulators

Oxygen regulator Fuel gas regulator

Single stage used when slight rise in delivery
pressure from full to empty cylinder
Regulator condition can be tolerated
type

Two stage used when a constant delivery

pressure from full to empty
21/10/2012
cylinder condition is required
468 of 740
 Flashback arrestors
Flashback - recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY

Normal Reverse Flashback

flow flow

Built- Built-in
in check Flashback
check valve flame
Flame stops quenched
valve reverse
barrie at the
r flow flashback
barrier

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 Oxyfuel gas cutting process
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been
preheated to its ignition point, to produce the
oxide Fe3O4 by exothermic [Link] oxide is
then blown through the material by the velocity of
the oxygen stream
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the
pre-heating flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: i.e.
acetylene, hydrogen, propane. etc
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able
to cut most metals - “Iron Powder Injection”
The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will
cause hardening in low alloy and medium/high C
steels they are thus pre-heated to avoid the
hardening effect

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 Oxyfuel gas cutting equipment
The cutting torch

Neutral cutting flame

Neutral cutting flame with

oxygen cutting stream
21/10/2012 471 of 740
 Oxyfuel gas cutting related terms

21/10/2012 472 of 740

 Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge

Cut too slow - top edge is Cut too fast -

melted, deep groves in the pronounced break in
lower portion, heavy scaling, the drag line,
rough bottom edge irregular cut edge
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 Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge

Preheat flame too low - Preheat flame too high -

deep groves in the lower top edge is melted,
part of the cut face irregular cut, excess of
21/10/2012
adherent dross 474 of 740
 Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge

Nozzle is too high above

the works - excessive Irregular travel speed - uneven
melting of the top edge, space between drag lines,
much oxide irregular bottom with adherent
21/10/2012
oxide 475 of 740
 Mechanised Oxyfuel cutting
can use portable carriages or gantry type machines
and obtain high productivity
accurate cutting for complicate shapes

21/10/2012 476 of 740

OFW/C advantages/disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1) No need for power 1) High skill factor
supply, portable
2) Wide HAZ
2) Versatile: preheat,
brazing, surfacing, repair, 3) Safety issues
straightening 4) Slow process
3) Low equipment cost 5) Limited range of
consumables
4) Can cut carbon and low
alloy steels 6) Not suitable for reactive
& refractory metals
5) Good on thin materials

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 Special oxyfuel operations
Gouging Rivet cutting

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 Special oxyfuel operations
Thin sheet cutting Rivet washing

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 Cutting Processes
Plasma arc cutting
Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas
through a constricted nozzle to remove the
molten metal
Uses a tungsten electrode and water
cooled nozzle
High quality cutting
High intensity and UV radiation – EYES !
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 Cutting Processes
Air-arc for cutting or gouging

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 Air-arc gouging features
• Operate ONLY on DCEP
• Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal
• Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!

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 Welding Inspector
Welding Consumables
Section 16

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 Welding Consumables

 Consumables for MMA welding

 AWS A 5.1 – and AWS 5.5 –

 Inspection points for MMA consumables

 Consumables for TIG/GTA welding (GTAW)

 Consumables for MIG/MAG welding

 Consumables for SAW welding

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 BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content

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 Welding consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are used up in
the production of a weld

Welding consumables may be:

• Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires.
• Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
• Separately supplied fluxes.
• Fusible inserts.

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Welding Consumable Standards
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG
MMA (SMAW) (GTAW)
• BS EN 499: Steel electrodes BS 2901: Filler wires
• AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
electrodes AWS A5.9: Filler wires
• AWS A5.4 Chromium BS EN 439: Shielding gases
electrodes
SAW
• AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
electrodes
BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
21/10/2012 487 of 740
 Welding Consumable Gases
welding gases
• GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel
• Supplied in cylinders or storage
tanks for large quantities
• Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use
• Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning
of storage areas
• Moisture content is limited to avoid
cold cracking
• Dew point (the temperature at which
the vapour begins to condense)
must be checked

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 Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
• Size, (diameter and length)

• Classification / Supplier
• Condition
• Treatments e.g. baking / drying

• Handling and storage is critical for consumable

control
• Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety

21/10/2012 489 of 740

 MMA Welding Consumables

MMA Covered Electrodes

The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding

• Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion

• Rutile - general purpose
• Basic - low hydrogen

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 MMA Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MMA:
• Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in
length and from 2.5mm - 6mm in diameter
• The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating

• The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel

• The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying

and refining agents in the flux coating
• The flux coating contains many elements and
compounds that all have a variety of functions during
welding
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 MMA Welding Consumables
Function of the Electrode Covering:
• To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
• To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination
• To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
• To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
cooling weld metal
• To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties
• To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal)
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)

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 Covered electrode inspection
1: Electrode size (diameter and length)

2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricity

3: Electrode designation

EN 499-E 51 3 B

Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)

See BS EN ISO 544 for further information

21/10/2012 494 of 740
 MMA Welding Consumables
Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
•rutile electrodes
•general purpose basic electrodes

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Tin can
•cellulosic electrodes

Vacuum sealed pack

•extra low hydrogen electrodes
21/10/2012 495 of 740
 MMA Welding Consumables
Cellulosic electrodes:
covering contains cellulose (organic material).
produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the arc
voltage.
Deep penetration / fusion characteristics enables
welding at high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
generates high level of fumes and H2 cold cracking.
Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
not require baking or drying (excessive heat will
damage electrode covering!).
Mainly used for stove pipe welding
hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100 g of weld metal.
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 MMA Welding Consumables
Cellulosic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
• weld beads have high hydrogen
• risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow
H to escape)
• not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking risk too
high (may not be allowed for Grades stronger than X70)
• not suitable for very thick sections (may not be used on
thicknesses > ~ 35mm)
• not suitable when low temperature toughness is required
(impact toughness satisfactory down to ~ -20°C)

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 MMA Welding Consumables
Cellulosic Electrodes

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Deep penetration/fusion High in hydrogen
Suitable for welding in all High crack tendency
positions Rough weld
Fast travel speeds appearance
High spatter contents
Large volumes of shielding
gas Low deposition rates
Low control
21/10/2012 498 of 740
 MMA Welding Consumables
Rutile electrodes:
• covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabiliser.
• easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
welding.
• stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
• slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
• Reasonably good strength weld metal.
• Used mainly on general purpose work.
• Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
• electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be
baked as it will destroy the coating.
• hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100 g of weld metal.

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 MMA Welding Consumables
Rutile electrodes

Disadvantages:
• They cannot be made with a low hydrogen content
• Cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints -
cracking risk too high
• They do not give good toughness at low temperatures
• These limitations mean that they are only suitable for general
engineering - low strength, thin steel

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 MMA Welding Consumables
Rutile Electrodes

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Easy to use High in hydrogen
Low cost / control High crack tendency
Smooth weld profiles Low strength
Slag easily detachable Low toughness values
High deposition
possible with the
addition of iron powder

21/10/2012 501 of 740

 MMA Welding Consumables
Rutile Variants
High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Characteristics:
• coating is ‘bulked out’ with iron powder
• iron powder gives the electrode ‘high recovery’
• extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld
deposit from a single electrode can be as high as 180% of
the core wire weight
• give good productivity
• large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar to
SAW welds

21/10/2012 502 of 740

 MMA Welding Consumables
High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Disadvantages:
• Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen
control
• large weld beads produced cannot be used for all-positional
welding
• the very high recovery types usually limited to PA & PB
positions
• more moderate recovery may allow PC use

21/10/2012 503 of 740

 MMA Welding Consumables
Basic covering:
• Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
• Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section steel
and for high strength steels.
• Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350°C for
2 hour + time , to reduce moisture to very low levels and
achieve low hydrogen potential status.
• Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds.
• cannot be re-baked indefinitely !
• low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good
toughness and YS.
• have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of
weld metal).

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 MMA Welding Consumables
Basic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
• Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk of
cracking
• Typical baking temperature 300 ~ 350°C for 1 hours.
• Holding temperature 120 to 150°C.
• Issue in heated quivers typically 70°C.
• Welders need to take more care / require greater skill.
• Weld profile usually more convex.
• Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.

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 MMA Welding Consumables
Basic Electrodes
Advantages Disadvantages
High toughness values High cost
Low hydrogen contents High control
Low crack tendency High welder skill
required
Convex weld profiles
Poor stop / start
properties

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 BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content

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 BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
Electrodes classified as follows:
E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
E 38 - Minimum yield strength 380 N/mm2
Tensile strength 470 - 600 N/mm2
E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2
Tensile strength 500 - 640 N/mm2
E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
Tensile strength 530 - 680 N/mm2
E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Tensile strength 560 - 720 N/mm2
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 AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
E 60 1 3

Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering

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 AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes
E 70 1 8 M G

Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Alloy Content

21/10/2012 511 of 740

 MMA Welding Consumables
TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
• Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
• Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
• Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
• Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
21/10/2012 512 of 740
 Electrode efficiency
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes

Mass of weld metal deposited

Electrode Eficiency =
Mass of core wire melted

75-90% for usual electrodes

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 Covered electrode treatment
Cellulosic Use straight from the
box - No baking/drying!
electrodes

If necessary, dry up to
Rutile 120°C- No baking!
electrodes

Vacuum Use straight from the pack

within 4 hours - No
packed basic rebaking!
electrodes

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 Covered electrode treatment
Baking in oven 1 hours
Basic electrodes
at 300 ~ 350°C!

Limited number of After baking, maintain in

rebakes! oven at 150°C

If not used within 4

Use from quivers at
hours, return to oven Weld
75°C
and rebake!

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 Welding Consumables

TIG Consumables

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 TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:
• Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
• Filler wires of different materials composition and
variable diameters available in standard lengths, with
applicable code stamped for identification
• Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper
coating to resist corrosion.
• shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of
highest purity (99.9%).

21/10/2012 517 of 740

 TIG Welding Consumables
Welding rods:

•supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

•must be kept clean and free from oil and dust

•might require degreasing

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 Fusible Inserts
Pre-placed filler material

Before Welding After Welding

Other terms used include:

 EB inserts (Electric Boat Company)

 Consumable socket rings (CSR)

21/10/2012 519 of 740

 Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts:
• used for root runs on pipes
• used in conjunction with TIG welding
• available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic stainless
steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys
• different shapes to suit application

Radius
21/10/2012 520 of 740
 Fusible Inserts
Application of consumable inserts

21/10/2012 521 of 740

 Shielding gases for TIG welding
Argon
low cost and greater availability
heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium
low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile
low ionisation potential - easier arc starting, better arc
stability with AC, cleaning effect
for the same arc current produce less heat than
helium - reduced penetration, wider HAZ
to obtain the same arc power, argon requires a higher
current - increased undercut

21/10/2012 522 of 740

 Shielding gases for TIG welding
Helium
costly and lower availability than Argon
lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate compared
with argon (2-3 times)
higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability with AC,
less forgiving for manual welding
for the same arc current produce more heat than
argon - increased penetration, welding of metals with
high melting point or thermal conductivity
to obtain the same arc arc power, helium requires a
lower current - no undercut
21/10/2012 523 of 740
 Shielding gases for TIG welding
Hydrogen
not an inert gas - not used as a primary shielding gas
increase the heat input - faster travel speed and
increased penetration
better wetting action - improved bead profile
produce a cleaner weld bead surface
added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic
stainless steels and nickel alloys
flammable and explosive

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 Shielding gases for TIG welding

Nitrogen
not an inert gas
high availability - cheap
added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge for
duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels and copper
alloys
not used for mild steels (age embritlement)
strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity)

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 Welding Consumables

MIG / MAG Consumables

(Gases Covered previously)

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 MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
• Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding
gases
• variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter
(0.6 - 1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers
• Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys
as electrode wires.
• Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose
is corrosion resistance and electrical pick-up
• Gases can be pure Argon or CO2,
Argon + 5~20% CO2 mixes and Argon + 1~2% O2
or CO2 mixes (stainless steels).
21/10/2012 527 of 740
 MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding wires:
•carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated
• stainless steel wires are not coated

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB

•wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
•flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
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 Welding Consumables

Flux Core Wire Consumables

(Not in training manual)

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 Flux Core Wire Consumables

Functions of metallic sheath: Function of the filling powder:

provide form stability stabilise the arc
to the wire add alloy elements
serves as current produce gaseous
transfer during shield
welding produce slag
add iron powder

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 Types of cored wire

Seamless Butt joint Overlapping

cored wire cored wire cored wire
not sensitive to moisture good resistance to sensitive to
pick-up moisture pick-up moisture pick-
can be copper coated, can be copper up
better current transfer coated cannot be
thick sheath, good form thick sheath copper coated
stability, 2 roll drive
feeding possible difficult to seal the thin sheath
sheath easy to
difficult to manufacture
manufacture
21/10/2012 534 of 740
 Core elements and their function
Aluminium - deoxidize & denitrify
Calcium - provide shielding & form slag
Carbon - increase hardness & strength
Manganese - deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
Molybdenum - increase hardness & strength
Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness & corrosion
resistance
Potassium - stabilize the arc & form slag
Silicon - deoxidize & form slag
Sodium - stabilize arc & form slag
Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify & form slag
21/10/2012 535 of 740
 Welding Consumables

SAW Consumables

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 SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes:
• are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various
formulations
• shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
• clean the molten weld pool
• can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
• prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
• influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
• can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
• must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity

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 SAW Consumables
Welding flux:
• might be fused or agglomerated
• supplied in bags
• must be kept warm and dry
• handling and stacking requires care Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

• Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can

hold surface moisture so only drying
• Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar
treatment as basic electrodes
• If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be
recycled indefinitely

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 SAW Consumables
Fused Flux
• Flaky appearance
• Lower weld quality
• Low moisture intake
• Low dust tendency
• Good re-cycling
• Very smooth weld
profile
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type

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 SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water
• flux tends to be ‘glass-like’ (high in Silica)
• granules are hard and may appear shiny
• granules do not absorb moisture
• granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re-circulated
• are effectively a low hydrogen flux
• welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures

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 SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
•normally not hygroscopic
•easy storage and handling
•readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
•difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
•high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
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 SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux
• Granulated appearance
• High weld quality
• Addition of alloys
• Lower consumption
• Difficult slag removal
• Smooth weld profile
Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at much lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped,
friable, (easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements,
moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic type

21/10/2012 543 of 740

 SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
• easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• colour identification

Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

• tendency to absorb moisture
• possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
• possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles

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 SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules
• granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
• granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect
the flux from moisture pick-up - usually by holding in a
heated silo
• granules tend to break down into powder when being re-
circulated
• are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled
• welds give good toughness at low temperatures

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 SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
Mixed fluxes advantages:
•several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
•segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
•segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery
systems during welding
•inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix

21/10/2012 546 of 740

 SAW filler material
Welding wires can be used to weld:
•carbon steels
•low alloy steels
•creep resisting steels
•stainless steels
•nickel-base alloys
•special alloys for surfacing applications
Welding wires can be:
•solid wires
•metal-cored wires

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 SAW filler material
Welding wires:
•carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated
•stainless steel wires are not coated

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

•wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust

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 SAW filler material
Copper coating functions:

•to assure a good electric contact between wire

and contact tip
•to assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear)
•to provide protection against corrosion

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 Welding Inspector
Weldability of Steels
Section 17

21/10/2012 551 of 740

 Weldability of Steels

 Introduction

 Factors that affect Weldability

 Hydrogen Cracking

 Avoiding solidification cracking

 Lamellar tearing

 Weld decay

 Weld decay (Sensitisation)

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 Weldability of Steels
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding
processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the
properties for which it has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be
summarised as:
Composition of parent material
Joint design and size
Process and technique
Access

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 Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying
elements content.

If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures

to ensure the maintenance of the properties required

Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking

A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:

• an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range

of welding conditions

• great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-

heat etc)

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 The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the
properties required to make it useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties
of steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
• The temperature reached before and during welding
• Heat input
• The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT

21/10/2012 555 of 740

 Steel Alloying Elements
Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with
major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability.
• typically < ~ 0.25%
Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and
ductility, secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur
to form manganese sulphide.
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation
• up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves strength & toughness
Silicon (Si): Residual element from steel de-oxidation.
• typically to ~0.3%

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 Steel Alloying Elements
Phosphorus (P): Residual element from steel-making minerals difficult to
reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness

Sulphur (S): Residual element from steel-making minerals (can cause Hot
shortness)
< ~ 0.015% in modern steels
< ~ 0.003% in very clean steels

Aluminium (Al): De-oxidant and grain size control

•typically ˂ 0.3% deoxidiser

Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels
for corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but
reduces ductility.
•typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
21/10/2012 557 of 740
 Steel Alloying Elements
Nickel (Ni): Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from
acids, increases strength and toughness

Molybdenum (Mo): Affects hardenability. Steels containing

molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness
than other alloy steels. Increases the high temperature
tensile and creep strengths of steel (typically ~ 1.0%)

Niobium (Nb): a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05%

Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Titanium (Ti): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Copper (Cu): present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%)
added to ‘weathering steels’ (~ 0.6%) to give better
resistance to atmospheric corrosion

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 Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated

C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)

Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
electrodes should be used

Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)

Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required

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 Process Cracks
• Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)

• Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels).

• Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels)

• Lamellar Tearing (All steels)

• Re-heat Cracking (All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V

steels)

• Inter-Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay (stainless

steels)

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 Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
• Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and
contraction

• Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
plates being welded to each other

• Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
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 Cracks

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

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 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
May occur: Also know as:
up to 48 hrs after completion Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal. HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
At weld toes
Delayed cracking, as it takes
Under weld beads time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
At stress raisers.
up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
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 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4

factors occur together:
Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress More than ½ the yield stress
Temperature Below 300oC
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers

Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)

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Factors influencing susceptibility to hydrogen cracking

Susceptible
microstructure

Tensile CRACKING
(at room Temperature
stress Temperature)

High hydrogen
concentration
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 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
and slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
arc length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
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 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known

• Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas

Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate

21/10/2012 567 of 740

 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Cellulosic electrodes Hydrogen absorbed
produce hydrogen as a in a long, or
shielding gas unstable arc

Hydrogen introduced in Hydrogen

weld from consumable,
crack
oils, or paint on plate

H2 H2

Martensite forms from γ H2 diffuses to γ in HAZ

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 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure – MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.

Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time

Run out length x 103 (1000)
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 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Typical locations for Cold Cracking

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 HICC in HSLA steels
•HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels
(800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small
percentage alloying (over-alloyed Weld metal to match the
strength of parent metal)
•Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as
vanadium molybdenum and titanium, nickel and chromium
Strength. are used. It would be impossible to match this micro
alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
•It is however important to match the strength of the weld to
the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo

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 Hydrogen Scales

List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.

Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld
metal deposited.
Scale A High: >15 ml
Scale B Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
Scale C Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
Scale D Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
Scale E Ultra-low: < 3 ml

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 Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest
hydrogen content with regards to 100g of deposited weld
metal.

TIG < 3 ml
MIG < 5 ml
ESW < 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5 ml
SAW < 10ml
FCAW < 15 ml
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Hydrogen induced HAZ or weld metal cracks
Cause: Key words:
H2 HAZ cracks Process Consumables Paint, Rust, Grease
Super saturation Solubility σ Concentration Low ductility
Diffusion Transformation Martensite Critical factors=
Hardness>350HV Hydrogen>15ml σ>0.5 yield Temp<300˚C
stress
Cause: Key words:
HSLA weld cracks High strength metal Weld Hardenabilty Low ductility

Weld contraction Transverse crack Micro alloy Nb T V Longitudinal σ

Prevention Low Alloy and HSLA steels Key words:

Pre-heat Short stable arcs Prompt PWHT Use low H2 process

Minimise restraint Remove coatings No HAZ Stamps γ S/S weld metal
Reduce σ Use lower CEV Use hot pass Bake basic fluxes
concentration ASAP

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 Weldability

Solidification Cracking

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 Solidification Cracking

Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline

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 Solidification Cracking
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks

Crack type: Solidification cracking

Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction
of solidification

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 Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
• Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal
(sulphur, phosphor and carbon)
• The amount of stress/restraint
• Joint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints

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 Solidification Cracking
• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds)
• During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
of solidification, weld centerline.
• The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now be very
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
weld centerline.

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 Solidification Cracking Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ

Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

On solidification the On solidification the
bonding between the bonding between the grains
grains may be adequate to may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur crack may result

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 Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
•The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required to increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint

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 Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
• Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other sulphur containing product)
• Joint design selection depth to width ratios

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 Solidification Cracking
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking

large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area

with high concentration of impurities

Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,

phosphorous and other impurities).

High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal

conductivity, with high resultant residual stress

same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels

with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution
controls.

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 Solidification cracking in C/Mn steels

Cause: Key words:

High d:w Fe/S Weld centreline Contraction

Low melting point film Laminations Low cohesion Hot shortness

Prevention: Key words:

Mn:S (>40:1) Low C% Use low restraint Basic Fluxes (Ca/S) Reduce dilution

Control heat input Sulphur < 0.05% Change Preparation Cleaning (S/S)

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 Cracks

Lamellar Tearing

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 Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
• Joint design, direction of stress
• The amount of stress acting across the joint during
welding
• Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress
21/10/2012 587 of 740
 Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.

High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate

(know as the short transverse direction).

T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress

component in the through thickness direction.

Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld Corner butt weld

21/10/2012 (double-bevel) (single-bevel)
588 of 740
 Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area

Critical
area

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 Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing

Susceptible Non-Susceptible

Prior welding both An open corner joint

plates may be grooved may be selected to
to avoid lamellar tearing avoid lamellar tearing

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 Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
• The use of buttering runs
• A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place
• Joint design selection
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• Hydrogen precautions
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 Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation

Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
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 Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing

Friction Welded Caps

Short Tensile Specimen
Sample of Parent Material

Through
Thickness
Ductility

The results are given as a STRA value

Short Transverse Reduction in Area

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 Lamellar Tearing

Restraint

Lamellar tear
High contractional
strains

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 Lamellar tearing in C/Mn steels

Cause: Key words:

Low ductility High plastic strain Ɛ Sulphur > 0.05% Micro inclusions

High contraction σ Short transverse σ Stepped like crack Segregation

Prevention:

NDT for laminations Use of Z Plates Buttering layers Contraction gap

Re-design of joint Forged T piece Full chem analysis Control heat input

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 Cracks

Weld Decay
(Inter-Granular Corrosion /
Knife line Attack)

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 Weld Decay

Crack Type: Inter-Granular Corrosion

(Knife line Attack)

Location: Weld HAZ (Longitudinal)

Steel Type: Austenitic Stainless Steel

Susceptible Microstructure: Sensitised HAZ grain

boundaries
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 Weld Decay
Occurrence
Service Failure Problem caused by corrosion

Appearance
A narrow zone in the HAZ can be severely
corroded but surrounding areas
(Weld / Parent metal) may not be affected.

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 Weld Decay

At this critical range “650° C ~ 800° C” of temperature

CHROMIUM CARBIDE precipitation at the grain boundaries
takes place.
At this temperature range chromium is absorbed by the
carbon at the grain boundaries, which causes a local
depletion of chromium content in the adjacent areas.
The depletion of chromium content in the affected areas
results in lowering the materials resistance to corrosion
attack, allowing rusting to occur.
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 Weld Decay
Reasons:
Requires two factors to be acting at same time;
• Sensitive HAZ
• Corrosion liquid in contact with the sensitive HAZ, in
service

Note: Only affects certain types of austenitic stainless steel

e.g. 304 and 316

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 Weld Decay
Occurs When:

• An area in the HAZ has been sensitized by formation of

CHROMIUM CARBIDES. This area is in the form of a
line running parallel to and sides of the weld.
• This depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains
low in chromium oxide which is what produces the
corrosion resisting effect of stainless steels. If left
untreated CORROSION and FAILURE will be rapid.

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 Weld Decay

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 Weld Decay

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 Weld Decay

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 Weld Decay
How To Avoid:
• Occurrence in stainless steels which are not low carbon
grades (L grades) e.g. 304 and 316.
• HAZ becomes sensitive to preferential corrosion
because chromium carbides from at grain boundaries in
HAZ thereby locally reducing the corrosion resistance of
the HAZ.
• More prone to HAZ degradation the more weld runs put
in the joint, thicker sections (more thermal cycles -- HAZ
spends more time in temperature range where carbides
form).

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 Weld Decay
How To Reduce Sensitivity of HAZ:
• Using low carbon grade of austenitic stainless steel
e.g. 304L, 316L as the amount of free carbon in solution is
sufficiently low to ensure that Cr carbide formation is minimal
and therefore that sensitization is not usually of practical
significance during welding, corrosion resistance thus degraded.
• Use stabilized grades of stainless steel (321 & 347) which
contain titanium 321 and niobium 347 which combine with
carbon rather than Cr so no local reduction in corrosion
resistance.
• If welding higher carbon grades use low heat input welding and
fewer weld runs possible (less time available in temperature
range when Cr carbide form).
• It is possible to remove HAZ sensitivity by solution heat
treatment of the welded items. As this requires temperature of
1050° C ~ 1100 ° C this has practical difficulties).

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 Weld Decay

Service Environment:

• Corrosion of HAZ determined by service conditions, type

of chemicals and temperature.
• Problem not solved by trying to address service
conditions but by selection of material, taking account of
effects of welding/welding parameters.

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 Weld Decay
Summary
• Weld decay also called SENSITIZATION or
INTER-CRYSTALLINE corrosion, occurs within the
susceptible temperature range of approximately
650° C ~ 800 ° C, i.e. in the HAZ or during high
temperature service. At this temperature, carbon diffuses to
the grain boundaries and combines with chromium to form
carbides, leaving a Cr-depleted layer susceptible to corrosion
along the grain boundaries in the HAZ. Weld decay can be
avoided by keeping the carbon low, e.g. using low carbon
grades like 304L and the heat input low by avoiding preheat
or PWHT. It is also possible to use grades with added
elements which combine with the carbon e.g. 321 (which
contains Ti) or 347 (which
contains Nb).
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Inter- crystalline corrosion in stainless steels

Cause: Key words:

Cr depletion in grain Slow thermal cycle Cr23 C6 Association Sensitisation

HAZ parallel to weld 550-800˚C Carbon > 0.04 Time/Temperature

Prevention: Key words:

C% < 0.04% Max inter-pass temp Stabilisation Rapid cooling

Low heat input Titanium/Niobium Solution annealing Follow the WPS

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 Welding Inspector
Weld Repairs
Section 18

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 Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific
areas:
Production repairs
In service repairs

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 Weld Repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward
activity, but in many instances it is quite complex, and
various engineering disciplines may need to be involved
to ensure a successful outcome.
• Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by
the Q/C department to discover the likely reason for
their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).

In general terms, a welding repair involves What!

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 Weld Repairs
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
extensive metal removal:
• Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier
than repairs to service failures because the repair
procedure may be followed
• The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties
• During the inspection of the removed area prior to
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects
have been totally removed and the original joint
profile has been maintained as close as possible

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 Weld Repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
Authorization and procedure for repair

Removal of material and preparation for repair

Monitoring of repair Weld

Testing of repair - visual and NDT

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 Weld Repairs
There are a number of key factors that need to be
considered before undertaking any repair:
The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
Are there any alternatives to welding?
What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
How is the defect to be removed and what welding process
is to be used?
What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the
defect?
Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
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 Weld Repairs
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)
A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the
defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface
NDE method.
Once established the excavation site must be clearly
identified and marked out.
An excavation procedure may be required (method used
i.e. grinding, arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its
removal.
A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
appropriate welding process, consumable, technique,
controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will
need to be approved.
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 Weld Repairs
Use of approved welders.
Dressing the weld and final visual.
A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to
ensure that the defect has been successfully removed and
repaired.
Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out
after heat treatment requirements.
Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
(*Appropriate’ means suitable for the alloys being repaired
and may not apply in specific situations)

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 Weld Repairs
What will be the effect of welding distortion and
residual stress?
Will heat treatment be required?
What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the
repair be demonstrated?
Will approval of the repair be required – if yes, how
and by whom?

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 Production Weld Repairs
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be
fulfilled:

If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion face
the problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion.
If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be associated
with the material or the welding procedure
If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned to the
lack of skill of the welder.
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI or
DYE-PEN may be used to gauge the length of the defect and U/T
inspection used to gauge the depth.

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 Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the
defective areas are to be removed. The method of
removal may be:
• Grinding
• Chipping
• Machining
• Filing
• Oxy-Gas gouging
• Arc air gouging

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 Defect Excavation

Arc-air gouging

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 Arc-air gouging features
• Operate ONLY on DCEP
• Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal
• Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!

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 Production Weld Repairs
Production Repairs
are usually identified during production
inspection
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out
by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator

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 Production Weld Repairs

Plan View of defect

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 Production Weld Repairs
Side View of defect excavation

Side View of repair welding

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 In Service Weld Repairs
In service repairs
Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is
very likely to be in a different welding position and
condition than it was during production
It may also have been in contact with toxic, or
combustible fluids hence a permit to work will need to
be sought prior to any work being carried out
The repair welding procedure may look very different
to the original production procedure due to changes in
these elements.

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 In Service Weld Repairs
Other factors to be taken into consideration:
Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the
component i.e. electrical components, or materials that
may become damaged by the repair procedure.
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any
required pre or post welding heat treatments and a
possible restriction of access to the area to be
repaired.
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must
also take place on site and without a shut down of
operations, which may bring other elements that need
to be considered.
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 Weld Repairs
Is welding the best method of repair?
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?
What strength is required from the repair?
Can preheat be tolerated?
Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?
Will the repair resist its environment?
Can the repair be inspected and tested?
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 Weld repair related problems
heat from welding may affect dimensional stability
and/or mechanical properties of repaired assembly
due to heat from welding, YS goes down, danger of
collapse
filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to
galvanic corrosion
local preheat may induce residual stresses
cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld
metal cost!

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 Welding Inspector

Residual Stress & Distortion

Section 19

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 Residual Stresses and Distortions

 Development of residual stresses

 What causes distortion?
 What are the main types of distortion?
 What are the factors affecting distortion?
 Distortion – prevention by pre-setting, pre-bending or
use of restraint
 Distortion – prevention by design
 Distortion – prevention by fabrication techniques
 Distortion – corrective techniques

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 Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because:

they lead to distortion

they affect dimensional stability of the
welded assembly
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
they can facilitate certain types of
corrosion

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 Residual Stresses
The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces
expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and
adjacent material.
If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will
develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the
heating and cooling is localised.
Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real
accuracy.
Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not
stresses induced whilst applying external load
Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the
component.
The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
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 Stresses
Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the
cross sectional area

Compression

Tension
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 Stresses
Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and
lie in the plane of the cross sectional area.

Shear Stress

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 Stresses
Hoop Stress
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder
due to internal pressure.

Hoop Stress
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 Residual Stresses
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
 Along the weld – longitudinal residual stresses

 Across the weld – transverse residual stresses

 Through the weld – short transverse residual stresses

Longitudinal

Transverse

Short Transverse
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 Residual stress

Heating and
cooling causes
expansion and
contraction

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 Residual stress

In case of a heated
bar, the resistance
of the surrounding
material to the
expansion and
contraction leads
to formation of
residual stress

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 Summary
1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is
caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld
area.
2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures
after welding.
3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of
weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint
design and the materials properties
4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking,
clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of
residual stresses that remain will be higher.

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 Summary
6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is
called distortion.
7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is
very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion,
however we can say that there are three directions:
a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c. Short transverse
8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by
heat treatments.
9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the
residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.

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 Types of distortion
Angular distortion

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 Distortion

Angular Distortion
Transverse Distortion

Bowing Distortion Longitudinal Distortion

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 Distortion
Factors which affect distortion
• Material properties and condition
• Heat input
• The amount of restrain
• The amount of weld metal deposited

Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way:

•The used of a different joint design
•Presetting the joints to be welded – so that the metal distorts
into the required position.
•The use of a balanced welding technique
•The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.
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 Distortion
• Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are
free to move i.e. not restrained
• Restrained materials result in low distortion but high
residual stress
• More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
• Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency
than joints of a low restraint
• The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause
distortion

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 Distortion
Factors affecting distortion:

parent material properties

amount of restrain
joint design
fit-up
welding sequence

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 Factors affecting distortion
Parent material properties:
thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the value, the
greater the residual stress
yield strength - the greater the value, the greater the
residual stress
Young’s modulus - the greater the value (increase in
stiffness), the greater the residual stress
thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the lower the
residual stress
transformation temperature - during phase
transformation, expansion/contraction takes place. The
lower the transformation temperature, the lower the
residual stress

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 Factors affecting distortion
Joint design:
weld metal volume
type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
Amount of restrain:
thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses
high level of restrain lead to high stresses
preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe
welding!)
Fit-up:
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage

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 Factors affecting distortion
Welding sequence:
number of passes - every pass adds to the total
contraction
heat input - the higher the heat input, the greater
the shrinkage
travel speed - the faster the welding speed, the
less the stress
build-up sequence

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 Distortion prevention

Distortion prevention by pre-setting

a) pre-setting of fillet joint to

prevent angular distortion
b) pre-setting of butt joint to
prevent angular distortion
c) tapered gap to prevent
closure

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 Distortion
Pre-set or Offsetting:
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of
trial and error.

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by pre-bending
using strongbacks and wedges

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 Distortion
Clamping and jigging:
The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the
clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the
elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the
position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high
restraint and high levels of residual stresses.

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 Distortion prevention
Restraint techniques to prevent distortion

a) use of welding jigs

b) use of flexible
clamps

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 Distortion prevention
Restraint techniques to prevent distortion

c) use of strongbacks
with wedges

d) use of fully welded

strongbacks

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design
Consider eliminating the welding!!

Elimination of welds by:

a) by forming the plate
b) by use of rolled or extruded sections
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 Distortion prevention
Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds around the neutral

consider weld placement

reduce weld metal volume

and/or number of runs

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 Distortion prevention
The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of
local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld
deposited the higher amount of distortion

Preparation angle 60o

Preparation angle 40o

Preparation angle 0o

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by design
Use of balanced welding to reduce the amount of angular
distortion

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 Distortion prevention
Distortions prevention by design
Allowances to cover shrinkage
- Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length
does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60° V joint,
depending on number of runs
- Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

tack welding
a) tack weld straight through
to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use
back-step technique for
tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step technique

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

back to back assembly

a) assemblies tacked together

before welding
b) use of wedges for
components that distort on
separation after welding

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

use of stiffeners

Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate joints.

control welding process by:

- deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
- use the least number of runs to fill the joint
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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure

reduce the number of

runs required to make a
weld (e.g. angular
distortion as a function
of number of runs for a
10 mm leg length weld)
Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the number of
runs in the fillet weld
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 Distortion prevention

Distortion prevention by welding procedure

control welding techniques by use

balanced welding about the neutral axis
control welding techniques by keeping
the time between runs to a minimum

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by welding procedure

control welding techniques by

a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding
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 Distortion prevention
Back-step welding technique

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Back-skip welding technique

1. 4. 2. 5. 3. 6.

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 Distortion prevention
Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques

using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap

identical components welded back to back so welding can be
balanced about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal
bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as
possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used
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 Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - mechanical corrective techniques

Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint

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 Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - Best practice for mechanical corrective techniques

Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so

that spring-back will return the component to the correct shape
Check that the component is adequately supported during
pressing to prevent buckling
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or
produce a curvature
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the
following safe practice must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the
'missile'
-21/10/2012
clear personnel from the hazard area 670 of 740
 Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - thermal corrective techniques

Localised heating to
correct distortion

Spot heating for

correcting buckling

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 Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - thermal corrective techniques

Line heating to correct angular

distortion in a fillet weld

Use of wedge shaped heating

to straighten plate

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 Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - thermal corrective techniques
Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion

a) standard rolled b) buckled edge of c) box fabrication

steel section plate

General guidelines:
•Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
•Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
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 Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - thermal corrective techniques
•use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
•other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped
heating technique
•use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
•restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
•limit the temperature to 60° to 650°C (dull red heat) in steels to
prevent metallurgical damage
•in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge,
penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even
temperature

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 Welding Inspector
Heat Treatments
Section 20

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 Heat Treatment

 Introduction

 Heat treatment of steel

 Post weld heat treatment (PWHT)

 PWHT thermal cycle

 Heat treatment furnaces

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 Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
Global Where? Local

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 Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
after welding.
The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment
is given correctly in accordance with the specification or
as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
Preheat
Annealing
Normalising
Quench Hardening
Temper
Stress Relief
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 Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding

Post weld heat treatments

are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
controlling the formation of crystalline structures

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 Post Weld -Heat Treatments
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature
after completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.

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 Post Weld Heat Treatments
A B

(A) Normalised
(B) Fully Annealed
(C) Water-quenched
(D) Water-quenched & tempered

C D

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 Post Weld Heat Treatments
The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
• Method of application
• Rate of heating and cooling
• Maximum temperature
• Soak time
• Temperature measurement (and calibration)

DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS

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 Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled

Temperature
SoakingTemperature
and time at the
attained temperature

heating rate Cooling rate

Time

Heating Soaking Cooling

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 Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress

Cr-Mo steel - typical • At PWHT temp. the yield

Yield 500 strength of steel reduced
Strength
so that it it is not strong
(N/mm2 )
400 enough to give restraint.
C-Mn steel - typical

300
• Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
200 straining (typically < ~
0.5% strain)
100

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Temperature (°C)

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 Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame
impingement!
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation

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Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods

Advantages:
Easy to set up
Good portability
repeatability and
temperature uniformity

Disadvantages:
Gas furnace heat treatment Limited to size of parts

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Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Advantages:
High heating rates
Ability to heat a
narrow band

Disadvantages:
High equipment
cost
Large equipment,
HF (Induction) local heat treatment less portable

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Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods

Advantages:
Ability to vary
heat
Ability to
continuously
maintain heat

Disadvantages:
Elements may
burn out or arcing
Local heat treatment using during heating
electric heating blankets
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 Welding Inspector
Arc Welding Safety
Section 21

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 Arc Welding Safety

 General

 Electric shock

 Heat and light

 Fumes and gases

 Summary

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 Arc Welding Safety

Four aspects of arc welding safety that

visual/welding inspector must consider:

• Electric shock

• Heat and light

• Fumes and gases

• Noise

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 Arc Welding Safety
Electric shock

The electric shock hazard may be divided into two

categories:

• Primary voltage shock – 230 or 460V

• Secondary voltage shock – 60 ~ 100V

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 Arc Welding Safety
Duty cycle = Welding Cycle x 100
Total time

Light
• Light radiation is emitted arc in three principal
ranges:

Type Wavelength, nanometers

Infrared (heat) ˃ 700
Visible light 400 ~ 700
Ultraviolet radiation ˂ 400

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 Safety
Electrical safety
Heat & Light
– Visible light
– UV radiation - effects on
skin and eyes
Fumes & Explosive
Gasses
Noise levels
Fire Hazards
Scaffolding & Staging
Slips, trips and falls
Protection of others from
exposure

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 Welding Inspector
Calibration
Section 22

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 Calibration

 Introduction
 Terminology
 Calibration frequency
 Instruments for calibration
 Calibration methods

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 Calibration, validation and monitoring
Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined
point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
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 Calibration and validation
Frequency - When it is required?
once a year unless otherwise specified
whenever there are indications that the
instrument does not register properly
whenever the equipment has been
damaged, misused or subject to severe
stress
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
or repaired
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
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Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
How accurate?
depends on the application
welding current - ±2,5%
arc voltage - ±5%
wire feed speed - ±2,5%
gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow rate)
temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
depends on the welding process
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details

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 PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
What does a PAMS measure?
Gas flow
Welding rate
current (Hall (heating
effect element
device) sensor)

Arc voltage
(connection Wire feed
leads) speed
Temperature (tachometer)
(thermocouple)

21/10/2012 701 of 740

 PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
The purposes of
a PAMS

For measuring For calibrating

and recording and validating
the welding the welding
parameters equipment

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 Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed
monitoring

Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator

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 Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow
rate monitoring

Heating element
sensor

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 Summary
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it
has meters fitted

the inspector should check for calibration stickers,

dates etc.

a welding power source without meters can only be

validated that the control knobs provide repeatability

the main role is to carryout “in process monitoring” to

ensure that the welding requirements are met during
production

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 Welding Inspector

Application & Control of Pre heat

Section 23

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 Application And Control of Preheat

 General

 Definitions

 Application of preheat

 Control of preheat and interpass temperature

 Summary

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 Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately
before any welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
– is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
– normally expressed as a maximum

Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature

Pre heat maintenance temperature = the minimum temperature in the
weld zone which shall be maintained if welding is interrupted and shall be
monitored during the interruption.

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 Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean;
Component cannot be moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local
overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation
possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours);
Large power supply; Expensive equipment

21/10/2012 709 of 740

 Measuring pre heat in Welding
The purposes
of measuring

Demonstration of Welding
conformance to process
specified requirements control

Parameters to be measured:
welding current preheat/interpass
arc voltage temperature
travel speed force/pressure
shielding gas flow rate humidity
21/10/2012 710 of 740
 Pre-heat Application

Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than
local if possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.

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 Pre-Heat Application

Electrical Heated Manual Gas Operation

Elements

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 Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t < 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
welder

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 Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
the temperature shall be
measured on the face
opposite to that being
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
equalisation
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 Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint

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 Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint

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 Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.

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 The Chill Effect of the Material

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 Heating Temperature Control
TEMPILSTICKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not
measure max temp.
Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp.
Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate,
measure actual temp.

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 Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive
materials:
•crayons, paints and
pills
•cheap
•convenient, easy to
use
•doesn’t measure the
actual temperature!

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 Temperature Test Equipment
Contact thermometer
•Accurate
•Easy to use
•Gives the actual temperature
•Requires calibration
•suitable for moderate
temperatures

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 Temperature Test Equipment
Thermocouple
• based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference
between a hot junction (on weld) and a cold junction
• accurate method
• measures over a wide range of temperatures
• gives the actual temperature
• need calibration

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 Temperature Test Equipment
Thermistors
• temperature-sensitive resistors
whose resistance varies inversely
with temperature
• used when high sensitivity is
required
• gives the actual temperature
• need calibration
• can be used up to 999°C

21/10/2012 723 of 740

 Temperature test equipment
Devices for contactless measurement

• IR radiation and optical

pyrometer
• measure the radiant energy
emitted by the hot body
• contactless method, can be
used for remote measurements
• very complex
• for measuring high
temperatures

21/10/2012 724 of 740

 Welding Inspector
Practical Visual Inspection
Section 24

21/10/2012 725 of 740

 Fillet Weld Gauges

10mm

G.A.L.
L S.T.D.
16mm

Leg Length Gauge

10mm

G.A.L.

S.T.D.
16mm

Throat Thickness Gauge

21/10/2012 726 of 740
 HI-LO Welding Gauge

6
Root gap
dimension
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

Internal
alignment

21/10/2012 727 of 740

 Plate / Pipe Inspection

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 Plate Inspection Examination

Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors

examination your are required to conduct a practical
examination of a plate test weld, complete a thumb
print sketch and a final report on your findings

 Time allowed 1 hour and 15 minutes

 The code is provided

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 Plate Inspection Points

1) Use a pencil for the arrow lines, but make all

written comments and measurements in ink
only
2) Report everything that you can observe

3) Do not forget to compare and sentence your

report
4) Do not forget to date & sign your report

5) Make any observations, such as

recommendations for further investigation for
crack-like imperfections.
21/10/2012 730 of 740
 Plate Thumb Print Report

After you have observed an imperfection and

determined its type, you must be able to take
measurements and complete the thumb print report
sketch
The first thumb print report sketch should be in the
form of a repair map of the weld. (i.e. All
observations are Identified Sized and Located)
The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP exam
will look like the following example.

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 Plate Inspection Final Report

After you have completed your thumb print report

sketch of your test plate the next step is to complete
your final report again the report must be completed in
ink (no pencil).
The report must be completed to your thumb print
sketch, do not leave any boxes empty, every box must
be completed or dashed out. You must also make any
comments you feel are necessary regarding any
defects observed.

The report form used in CSWIP will look like the

following example.

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 Pipe Inspection

Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors

examination your are required to conduct a
practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete
a thumb print sketch and a final report on your
findings

 Time allowed 1 hour and 45 minutes

 The code is nominated e.g API 1104

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 Welding Inspector
Macro/Micro Visual Inspection
Section 25

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 Macro Preparation
Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that: -
• The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS
• The weld is free from defects
Specimen Preparation
• Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick)
• Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides
plus some unaffected base material
• One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400)
• Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ
• Prepared face examined at up to x10 (& usually photographed for
records)
• Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey
21/10/2012 735 of 740
 Micro Preparation
Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:-
• To examine the microstructure
• Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Specimen Preparation
• A small piece is cut from the region of interest
(typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm)

• The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest

prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800)
• Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror finish
• Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition & then
lightly etched
• Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600
21/10/2012 736 of 740
 Macro / Micro Examination
Object:
• Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a
visual evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint
• Carried out on full thickness specimens

• The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld

and parent plate
• They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders
approval test

21/10/2012 737 of 740

 Macro / Micro Examination
Will Reveal:
• Weld soundness

• Distribution of inclusions

• Number of weld passes

• Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ

• Location and depth of penetration of weld

• Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions

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 Macro Micro
• Visual examination for • Visual examination for
defects defects & grain structure
• Cut transverse from the • Cut transverse from a
weld weld
• Ground & polished P400 • Ground & polished P1200
grit paper grit paper, 1µm paste
• Acid etch using 5-10% • Acid etch using 1-5%
nitric acid solution nitric acid solution
• Wash and dry • Wash and dry
• Visual evaluation under 5x • Visual evaluation under
magnification 100-1000x magnification
• Report on results • Report on results

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 Metallographic Examination

Macro examination Micro examination

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