Asymmetric-Key
Cryptography
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10.1
Chapter 10
Objectives
To distinguish between two cryptosystems:
symmetric-key and asymmetric-key
To introduce trapdoor one-way functions and their
use in asymmetric-key cryptosystems
To discuss the RSA cryptosystem
To discuss the Rabin cryptosystem
10.2
101 INTRODUCTION
Symmetric and asymmetric-key cryptography will exist
in parallel and continue to serve the community. We
actually believe that they are complements of each
other; the advantages of one can compensate for the
disadvantages of the other.
Topics discussed in this section:
10.1.1 Keys
10.1.2 General Idea
10.1.3 Need for Both
10.1.4 Trapdoor One-Way Function
10.1.5 Knapsack Cryptosystem
10.3
101 INTRODUCTION
Symmetric and asymmetric-key cryptography will exist
in parallel and continue to serve the community. We
actually believe that they are complements of each
other; the advantages of one can compensate for the
disadvantages of the other.
Note
Symmetric-key cryptography is based on sharing secrecy;
asymmetric-key cryptography is based on personal secrecy.
10.4
10.1.1 Keys
Asymmetric key cryptography uses two separate keys: one
private and one public.
Figure 10.1 Locking and unlocking in asymmetric-key cryptosystem
10.5
10.1.2 General Idea
Figure 10.2 General idea of asymmetric-key cryptosystem
10.6
10.1.2 Continued
Plaintext/Ciphertext
Unlike in symmetric-key cryptography, plaintext and
ciphertext are treated as integers in asymmetric-key
cryptography.
Encryption/Decryption
C = f (Kpublic , P) P = g(Kprivate , C)
10.7
10.1.3 Need for Both
There is a very important fact that is sometimes
misunderstood: The advent of asymmetric-key
cryptography does not eliminate the need for symmetric-
key cryptography.
10.8
10.1.4 Trapdoor One-Way Function
The main idea behind asymmetric-key cryptography is the
concept of the trapdoor one-way function.
Functions
Figure 10.3 A function as rule mapping a domain to a range
10.9
10.1.4 Continued
One-Way Function (OWF)
1. f is easy to compute.
2. f −1 is difficult to compute.
Trapdoor One-Way Function (TOWF)
3. Given y and a trapdoor, x can be
computed easily.
10.10
10.1.4 Continued
Example 10. 1
When n is large, n = p × q is a one-way function. Given p and
q , it is always easy to calculate n ; given n, it is very difficult to
compute p and q. This is the factorization problem.
Example 10. 2
When n is large, the function y = xk mod n is a trapdoor one-
way function. Given x, k, and n, it is easy to calculate y. Given
y, k, and n, it is very difficult to calculate x. This is the discrete
logarithm problem. However, if we know the trapdoor, k′ such
that k × k ′ = 1 mod (n), we can use x = yk′ mod n to find x.
10.11
102 RSA CRYPTOSYSTEM
The most common public-key algorithm is the RSA
cryptosystem, named for its inventors (Rivest, Shamir,
and Adleman).
Topics discussed in this section:
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 Procedure
10.2.3 Some Trivial Examples
10.2.4 Attacks on RSA
10.2.5 Recommendations
10.2.6 Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP)
10.2.7 Applications
10.12
10.2.1 Introduction
Figure 10.5 Complexity of operations in RSA
10.13
10.2.2 Procedure
Figure 10.6 Encryption, decryption, and key generation in RSA
10.14
10.2.2 Continued
Two Algebraic Structures
Encryption/Decryption Ring: R = <Zn , +, × >
Key-Generation Group: G = <Z (n)∗, × >
10.15
10.2.2 Continued
10.16
10.2.2 Continued
Encryption
10.17
10.2.2 Continued
Decryption
10.18
10.2.2 Continued
Proof of RSA
10.19
10.2.3 Some Trivial Examples
Example 10. 5
Bob chooses 7 and 11 as p and q and calculates n = 77. The
value of (n) = (7 − 1)(11 − 1) or 60. Now he chooses two
exponents, e and d, from Z60∗. If he chooses e to be 13, then
d is 37. Note that e × d mod 60 = 1 (they are inverses of each
Now imagine that Alice wants to send the plaintext 5 to Bob.
She uses the public exponent 13 to encrypt 5.
Bob receives the ciphertext 26 and uses the private key 37 to
decipher the ciphertext:
10.20
10.2.3 Some Trivial Examples
Example 10. 6
Now assume that another person, John, wants to
send a message to Bob. John can use the same
public key announced by Bob (probably on his
website), 13; John’s plaintext is 63. John calculates
the following:
Bob receives the ciphertext 28 and uses his private key 37 to
decipher the ciphertext:
10.21
10.2.3 Some Trivial Examples
Example 10. 7
Jennifer creates a pair of keys for herself. She
chooses p = 397 and q = 401. She calculates
n = 159197. She then calculates (n) = 158400. She
then chooses e = 343 and d = 12007. Show how Ted
can send a message to Jennifer if he knows e and n.
Suppose Ted wants to send the message “NO” to
Jennifer. He changes each character to a number
(from 00 to 25), with each character coded as two
digits. He then concatenates the two coded
characters and gets a four-digit number. The plaintext
is 1314. Figure 10.7 shows the process.
10.22
10.2.3 Continued
Figure 10.7 Encryption and decryption in Example 10.7
10.23
10.2.4 Attacks on RSA
Figure 10.8 Taxonomy of potential attacks on RSA
10.24
10.2.6 OAEP
Figure 10.9 Optimal asymmetric encryption padding (OAEP)
10.25
10.2.6 Continued
Example 10. 8
Here is a more realistic example. We choose a 512-bit p
and q, calculate n and (n), then choose e and test for
relative primeness with (n). We then calculate d.
Finally, we show the results of encryption and
decryption. The integer p is a 159-digit number.
10.26
10.2.6 Continued
Example 10. 8 Continued
The modulus n = p × q. It has 309 digits.
(n) = (p − 1)(q − 1) has 309 digits.
10.27
10.2.6 Continued
Example 10. 8 Continued
Bob chooses e = 35535 (the ideal is 65537) and tests it to
make sure it is relatively prime with (n). He then finds
the inverse of e modulo (n) and calls it d.
10.28
10.2.6 Continued
Example 10. 8 Continued
Alice wants to send the message “THIS IS A TEST”,
which can be changed to a numeric value using the
00−26 encoding scheme (26 is the space character).
The ciphertext calculated by Alice is C = Pe, which is
10.29
10.2.6 Continued
Example 10. 8 Continued
Bob can recover the plaintext from the ciphertext using
P = Cd, which is
The recovered plaintext is “THIS IS A TEST” after
decoding.
10.30
103 RABIN CRYPTOSYSTEM
The Rabin cryptosystem can be thought of as an RSA
cryptosystem in which the value of e and d are fixed.
The encryption is C ≡ P2 (mod n) and the decryption is
P ≡ C1/2 (mod n).
Topics discussed in this section:
10.3.1 Procedure
10.3.2 Security of the Rabin System
10.31
103 Continued
Figure 10.10 Rabin cryptosystem
10.32
10.3.1 Procedure
Key Generation
10.33
10.3.1 Continued
Encryption
10.34
10.3.1 Continued
Decryption
Note
The Rabin cryptosystem is not deterministic:
Decryption creates four plaintexts.
10.35
10.3.1 Continued
Example 10. 9
Here is a very trivial example to show the idea.
1. Bob selects p = 23 and q = 7. Note that both are
congruent to 3 mod 4.
2. Bob calculates n = p × q = 161.
3. Bob announces n publicly; he keeps p and q private.
4. Alice wants to send the plaintext P = 24. Note that 161 and 24
are relatively prime; 24 is in Z161*. She calculates C = 242 = 93
mod 161, and sends the ciphertext 93 to Bob.
10.36
10.3.1 Continued
Example 10. 9
5. Bob receives 93 and calculates four values:
a1 = +(93 (23+1)/4) mod 23 = 1 mod 23
a2 = −(93 (23+1)/4) mod 23 = 22 mod 23
b1 = +(93 (7+1)/4) mod 7 = 4 mod 7
b2 = −(93 (7+1)/4) mod 7 = 3 mod 7
6. Bob takes four possible answers, (a1, b1), (a1, b2), (a2, b1), and
(a2, b2), and uses the Chinese remainder theorem to find four
possible plaintexts: 116, 24, 137, and 45. Note that only the
second answer is Alice’s plaintext.
10.37
153 SYMMETRICKEY AGREEMENT
Alice and Bob can create a session key between
themselves without using a KDC. This method of
session-key creation is referred to as the symmetric-
key agreement.
Topics discussed in this section:
15.3.1 Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement
15.38
15.3.1 Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement
Figure 15.9 Diffie-Hellman method
15.39
15.3.1 Continued
Note
The symmetric (shared) key in the Diffie-Hellman
method is K = gxy mod p.
15.40
15.3.1 Continued
Example 15.1
Let us give a trivial example to make the procedure clear. Our
example uses small numbers, but note that in a real situation, the
numbers are very large. Assume that g = 7 and p = 23. The steps
are as follows:
1. Alice chooses x = 3 and calculates R1 = 73 mod 23 = 21.
2. Bob chooses y = 6 and calculates R2 = 76 mod 23 = 4.
3. Alice sends the number 21 to Bob.
4. Bob sends the number 4 to Alice.
5. Alice calculates the symmetric key K = 43 mod 23 = 18.
6. Bob calculates the symmetric key K = 216 mod 23 = 18.
7. The value of K is the same for both Alice and Bob;
gxy mod p = 718 mod 35 = 18.
15.41
15.3.1 Continued
Example 15.2
Let us give a more realistic example. We used a program to create
a random integer of 512 bits (the ideal is 1024 bits). The integer p
is a 159-digit number. We also choose g, x, and y as shown below:
15.42
15.3.1 Continued
Example 15.2 Continued
The following shows the values of R1, R2, and K.
15.43
15.3.1 Continued
Figure 15.10 Diffie-Hellman idea
15.44
15.3.1 Continued
Security of Diffie-Hellman
Discrete Logarithm Attack
Man-in-the-Middle Attack
15.45
15.3.1 Continued
Figure 15.11 Man-in-the-middle attack
15.46
15.3.2 Station-to-Station Key Agreement
Figure 15.12 Station-to-station key agreement method
15.47
