Introduction to Structural Analysis
Earlier engineering structures were designed by trial and error and by using rules of thumb based
on past experience.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) is generally considered to be the originator of the theory of structures.
Among the notable investigators of that period were
Robert Hooke (1635–1703), who developed the law of linear relationships between the force
and deformation of materials (Hooke’s law);
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), who formulated the laws of motion and developed calculus;
John Bernoulli (1667–1748), who formulated the principle of virtual work;
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who developed the theory of buckling of columns; and
C. A. de Coulomb (1736–1806), who presented the analysis of bending of elastic beams
In 1826 L. M. Navier (1785–1836) published a treatise on elastic behavior of structures, which is
considered to be the first textbook on the modern theory of strength of materials.
The important contributors of this period included B. P. Clapeyron (1799–1864), who formulated
the three-moment equation for the analysis of continuous beams; J. C. Maxwell (1831–1879),
who pre- sented the method of consistent deformations and the law of reciprocal deflections;
Otto Mohr (1835–1918), who developed the conjugate-beam method for calculation of
deflections and Mohr’s circles of stress and strain; Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884), who
formulated the theorem of least work; C. E. Greene (1842–1903), who developed the moment-
area method; H. Muller-Breslau (1851–1925), who presented a principle for constructing
influence lines; G. A. Maney (1888–1947), who developed the slope-deflection method, which is
considered to be the precursor of the matrix stiffness method; and Hardy Cross (1885–1959),
who developed the moment-distribution method in 1924.
The moment-distribution method provided engineers with a simple iterative procedure for analyz
ing highly statically indeterminate structures.
Many structures designed during that period, such as high-rise buildings, would not have been pos- sible
without the availability of the moment-distribution method.
Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering
Projects
Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engineering project, its function being the
prediction of the performance of the proposed structure.
1. Planning Phase
The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements of the proposed
structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the possible types of
structures
2. Preliminary Structural Design
In the preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of the various members of the structural system
selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate analysis, past experience, and
code requirements.
3. Estimation of Loads
Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can be expected to act on the structure.
4. Structural Analysis
In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis of the structure in order
to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at various points of
the structure.
5. Safety and Serviceability Checks
The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the structure satisfies the
safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes.
6. Revised Structural Design
If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5
are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied.
Classification of Structures
Commonly used structures can be classified into five basic categories, depending on the type of
primary stresses that may develop in their members under major design loads. However, it should be
realized that any two or more of the basic structural types described in the following may be
combined in a single structure, such as a build- ing or a bridge, to meet the structure’s functional
requirements.
Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the action of external loads.
Besides cable structures, other examples of tension structures include vertical rods used as
hangers (for example, to support balconies or tanks) and membrane structures such as tents and
roofs of large-span domes
Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action of external
loads. Two common examples of such structures are columns and arches
Trusses
Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connections to
form a stable configuration
Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear
walls (Fig. 1.11), are used in multistory buildings to
reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and
earthquake excitations
Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In some
structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments may also be significant
and should be considered in their designs. Some of the most commonly used structures, such as
beams, rigid frames, slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures.
Analytical Models
An analytical model is a simplified representation, or an ideal, of a real structure for the
purpose of analysis. The objective of the model is to simplify the analysis of a complicated
structure.
Plane Versus Space Structure
If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a single plane, the structure is
called a plane structure. The analysis of plane, or two-dimensional, structures is considerably simpler
than the analysis of space, or three-dimensional, structures. Fortunately, many actual three-
dimensional structures can be subdivided into plane structures for analysis. A
Line Diagram
The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected for analysis is represented by a
line diagram. On this diagram, each member of the structure is represented by a line coinciding with
its centroidal axis. The dimensions of the members and the size of the connections are not shown
on the diagram.
Connections
Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of structures:
(1) rigid connections and
(2) flexible, or hinged, connections.
Rigid joints are usually represented by points at the intersections of members on the line diagram of
the structure, as shown in Fig. 1.17(b). A hinged connection or joint prevents only relative translations
of member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a hinged joint have the same
translation but may have different rotations. Such joints are thus capable of transmitting forces but not
moments between the connected members. Hinged joints are usually depicted by small circles at the
intersections of members on the line diagram of the structure, as shown in Fig. 1.16(b).
Supports
Supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either fixed supports, which do not allow
any movement; hinged supports, which can prevent translation but permit rotation; or roller, or link,
supports, which can prevent translation in only one direction.