Different Types Financial instruments
MEANING OF FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
• Financial instruments are financial contracts of different
nature made between institutional units. These comprise the
full range of financial claims and liabilities between
institutional units, including contingent liabilities like
guarantees, commitments, etc.
• Financial instruments are contracts that gives rise to financial asset to one
equity, and a financial liability or and equity instument to another entity.
• Financial instruments include primary financial instruments like receivables,
payables loans and advances, debentures and bonds, investment in equity
instruments, cash and bank balances, derivative instruments like options,
futures,swaps,cap,collar,floor, forward rate agreement(FRA) etc.
TYPES OF FINANCIAL INTRUMENTS
• SDRs
• Borrowings
• Deposits
• Loans
• Shares and other equity
• Debentures or bonds
• Other account receivables and payables
• Financial derivatives
• Letter of guarantee
• Letter of credit
• Financial commitments
• Pledged financial assets
SDRs(Special Drawing Rights)
• SDRs are international reserve assets created by the IMF and
allocated to member countries to supplement existing official
reserves.
• SDRs are not treated as the IMF’s liability.
• SDRs are held only by the IMF member countries and by a
limited number of international financial organizations.
• SDR holdings are held exclusively by official authorities, which
are normally the central banks.
• Transactions in SDRs between the IMF members or between the
IMF and its members are treated as financial transactions.
• SDR holdings represent unconditional rights to holders to obtain
foreign exchange or other reserve assets from other IMF
members.
BORROWINGS
• Normally, borrowings are not considered as a separate financial instrument.
• Borrowing is carried out through other financial instruments, for example, through
loans, deposits, etc.
• Nevertheless, because of peculiarities of Armenian Law, borrowings in Armenia can
be treated as a separate finical instrument, as these are source of funds for credit
institutions.
• According to Armenian Civil Code, the lender gives the borrower money under the
loan agreement, and the borrower undertakes to return the received amount to the
lender as and when specified by the agreement.
• If the maturity date is not specified or it is specified as demand, the amount of the
loan shall be returned within thirty days upon the lender's request, unless otherwise
provided by the agreement.
• Thus, the borrowings as well as deposits can be both demand and time. Opposed to
time deposits, borrowings are less liquid, because lender's claim on collection of loan
is due to some restrictions, unless otherwise provided by the agreement. In a
borrowing transaction, the lender will earn interest against the amount provided.
DEPOSITS
• Deposits include all claims on the central bank
and other depository corporations, represented as
bank deposits. In some cases, other financial
corporations may also accept deposits.
• Deposits of depository corporations can fall into two
categories: transferable deposits and other deposits
(non-transferable deposits). Normally, separate sub-
categories are used for deposits denominated in
national currency and for those in foreign currency.
LOANS
• Loans are financial assets that are
• created when a creditor lends funds directly to a debtor
(borrower),
• evidenced by non-negotiable documents.
• Short-term loans – short-term loans normally involve loans with maturity of one
year or less. However, for reconciliation of different
• practices between the countries, short-term loans can be defined
• including loans with maturity of up to two years. All loans that will
mature upon request are classified as short-term, even if it is expected that
these loans will not be repaid within one year.
• Medium-term loans - depending on practices applied in countries, loans with
maturity from 1 to 5 years are classified as medium-term loans.
• Long-term loans – long-term loans include the loans with maturity that
• exceeds those of short- and medium-term loans.
• According to statistical classification, repo agreements, financial leasing,
factoring operations and other similar agreements are classified under the category of
loans.
Shares and other equity
• Shares are financial instruments that represent or provide evidence
on ownership rights of the holders over enterprises or organizations,
including financial institutions. Shares and other equity comprise all
• instruments and records acknowledging, after the claims of all creditors
have been met, claims on the residual value of a corporation (companies,
corporations). Normally, these instruments entitle the holders both of
distributed profits of enterprises or organizations, and the residual
• value of the assets in the event of liquidation. Ownership of equity is
usually evidenced by shares, stocks, participation's and similar documents.
This category also includes preferred shares that provide for participation in
the residual value on dissolution of an enterprise.
• Types of equity are:
• ordinary shares that provide for ownership right in an enterprise
or corporation;
• preferred shares that provide right for claim over residual value
of an enterprise,
• equity participation in limited liability companies.
Debentures or bonds
• The term ‘creditorship securities’ also known as ‘debt capital’
represents debentures and bonds. They occupy a significant place in
the financial plan of the company. Adebenture or a bond is an
acknowledgement of
• A debt. It is a certificate issued by a company under its seal
acknowledging A debt due by its holders.
• Types of debentures and bonds
• Unsecured and secured debentures
• Redeemable and irredeemable debentures
• Zero interest bonds/debentures
• Zero coupon bonds
• Guaranteed debentures
• Collateral debentures
FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES
Financial derivatives are financial instruments that are linked to specific
assets (other financial instruments, goods). By nature, these
instruments are similar to contingent instruments. Claims and liabilities
related to financial instruments will arise after a specific period of time.
In this case, contingency of an instrument relates only to the time
regardless of occurrence of any other event or condition. Derivative
instruments are not considered a financial claim or liability for the holder
thereof at the given moment. However, financial derivatives can be
traded in the market and thus they will obtain a market value, which will
depend on the market price of the underlying financial or nonfinancial
asset. Thus, the price of a derivative instrument “derives” from the price
of the underlying asset. In the event when the contract price of the
underlying financial asset is preferable to the current market price, the
derivative would have a positive market value. If a financial derivative
instrument has a market value it must be recorded in the balance sheet
as a financial asset
OTHER ACCOUNT RECEIVABLES AND PAYABLES
• Accounts receivable/payable include trade credits, advances
and other receivables or payables. Trade credits comprise
trade credit extended directly to buyers of goods and services
(enterprises, government, NPISHs, households, and
nonresidents). Advances are
• prepayments made for work that is in progress or for purchase of goods
• and services. Any agreement, which does not assume direct payment by
cash or other financial instrument to purchase goods or services, will
create
• a trade credit extended by the seller to the buyer. Here, it does
not involve loans acquired to finance the trade credit since
these credits are classified under the category of loans. This
category includes only direct trade credits and advances.
• This category includes also items such as debtors and
creditors, tax liabilities and other accounts
receivable/payable.
DERIVATIVES
OPTIONS SWAPS
FORWARDS/
FUTURES
FORWARDS
• In a forward contract, the counterparties agree to exchange, on
a specified date, a specified quantity of an underlying item (financial
or real asset) at an agreed-upon contract price.
• Execution of a forward contract is mandatory but only in the case of
expiry of the period specified in the contract. Each of the counterparties
has both claim and liability upon execution. The net value of the
instrument (difference between claims and liabilities) is zero.
FUTURES
• A future contract is an agreement between seller and the buyer that
calls for the seller to deliver to the buyer a specific quantity, grade of an
identified commodity at a fixed time in the future and at a price agreed
to when the contract is first entered into.
OPTIONS
• The buyer of an option acquires the right but not
the obligation to purchase or sell a specific asset.
Options too, contain contingency: the acquirer of an
option may not wish to exercise it. The buyer pays
a certain amount to the seller of the option and thus
acquires the right but not the obligation to sell or
purchase a specified item at an agreed-upon price
in a specified period. The buyer of an option can
sell the option contract, i.e. the right to exercise the
option, whereby the option obtains a market value.
The statistical recording of options should be
carried out in the same way as for the forwards.
SWAPS
• A swap represents a spot purchase (sale) of a financial asset with a
condition of forward sale(purchase).
• Swap agreement
• is a type of a forward, in which the parties agree to exchange
different currencies, that is to buy (sell) any currency for another
• currency in spot market and concluding at the same time a repurchase
agreement on sale (purchase) of these currencies in forward market at prices
determined beforehand, pursuant to the rules specified.
• Types of SWAPs
• Interest rate Swaps
• Currency Swaps
LETTER OF GUARANTEE
• Guarantee involves an obligation by the economic entity to
assume the other entity’s financial obligation if that other party
[Link] issuer, a guarantee is not treated as a financial liability
as far as theparty, to whom the guarantee has been issued, has
not shown its inability to meet such a liability. Therefore, until
availability of this condition, letters of guarantee will be
recorded asoff-balance sheet items.
LETTER OF CREDITS
• A letter of credit is an obligation to make payment against
• documents received. The amounts to be paid upon receipt of the
documents become liabilities of the bank. Letters of credit are
used to finance international trade operations
FINANCIAL COMMITMENTS
• Financial commitments involve contracts between institutional units by which
the entities make arrangements on specific financial transactions to be carried out in
some future time. The party assuming liabilities usually is obliged to provide
financial assets to the other party if specific conditions are met. Unlike the letters of
guarantee whereby the issuer of guarantee assumes liability of an entity, the issuer
of commitment will be responsible for fulfilment of the terms of
• the contract, in case of the commitments. Nonfinancial commitments will not be
treated as financial instruments.
PLEDGED FINANCIAL ASSETS
There is a common practice to provide loans against a certain
financial asset taken as [Link] residual maturity of the pledged asset should be
longer than the duration of the loan. Securities, deposits, currency, shares, and similar
assets can qualify as pledged financial assets against loans. Financial assets are returned to
the original owner as the loan is repaid. Thus, the risks associated with change in market
value of pledged financial asset will stay with the original owner thereof (the borrower)
throughout the period of the collateralized loan agreement.
INNOVATIVE FINANACIAL INSTRUMENTS
• Equity Warrants- The equity warrants is a paper attached to a bond preferred stock
that gives the holder the right to buy a fixed number of company’s equity shares at a
predetermined price at a future date.
• Secured Premium Notes(SPNs)- The secured premium note is a tradable instrument with
detachable warrant against which the holder gets equity shares after a fixed period of time.
• Callable Bond- A callable bond is a bond that can be called in and paid off by issuer at a price,
called the ‘call price’ stipulated in the bond contract. It gives the advantage to issuer company to call
the existing bonds if the interest rates fall in the market below the bond’s coupon rate.
• Floating/Variable or Adjustable Rate Bonds- The rate of interest payable on these bonds varies
periodically depending upon the market rate of interest payable on the gilt-edged securities.
• Deep Discount Bonds(DDBs)- The deep discount bond does not carry any interest but it is sold
by the issuer company at a deep discount from its eventual maturity(normal) value.
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