Nuclear

Engineering
COURSE DESCRIPTION

This is a 3-unit elective course designed to

prepare the students for work in the Nuclear
Engineering field via exposure to the
fundamentals of Nuclear Physics, Nuclear
Fission, Nuclear reactor theory and technology.
This also aims to provide better understanding of
the relation and applications of the concepts of
nuclear engineering in the field of Chemical
engineering.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course, the students should be
able:

 Relate the fundamentals of nuclear physics to

the field of nuclear engineering.
 Explain the principle of nuclear chain reactor.
 Apply the reactor theory in reactor
construction.
 Determine appropriate materials for reactor
construction.
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Nuclear - (weapons) deriving destructive

energy from the release of atomic energy
- (physics) of or relating to or
constituting the nucleus of an atom.

Engineering – the practical application of

science to commerce or industry

Nuclear Engineering – the branch of

engineering concerned with the design and
construction and operation of nuclear reactors.
FUNDAMENTALS OF
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 UNITS
 For distance : cm (centimeters)
 For mass : g (grams)
 For time : sec (seconds)
 For power : W (watts)
FUNDAMENTALS OF
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 THREE SYSTEMS USED FOR
ELECTRICAL UNITS
1. Electrostatic System of Units (esu) –
based upon the unit charge
2. Electromagnetic System of Units (emu) –
based upon the unit magnetic pole
3. Practical System – defined so that the
magnitude of the various units become
convenient for industrial use.
FUNDAMENTALS OF
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 UNITS
When treating atomic and nuclear phenomena,
physical quantities such as energies and
masses are extremely small in SI units, and
special units are almost always used.
~Electron Volt
The energy released or absorbed in a
chemical reaction is typically of the order of 10-
19 J. It is much more convenient to use a

special energy unit called the electron volt.

(1 ev = 1.6 x 10-12 erg = 1.6022 x 10-19 J)
FUNDAMENTALS OF
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 Electromagnetic radiations
 Energy that travels through space as waves,
is made up of magnetic and electric fields
oscillating at right angles to one another.
 Expressed in terms of electron volts.
 Since the energy of one photon is hv, ergs
Where: h = Planck’s constant, 6.62 x 10-27 erg-sec
v = frequency of radiation

ℎ𝑣
𝜖= (𝑒𝑣)
1.6𝑥10−12
FUNDAMENTALS OF
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 Wavelength and Frequency
 Waves are characterized by their wavelength,
frequency, and speed.
 Wavelength, λ - the distance between two
consecutive peaks or trough in a wave.
 Frequency, ν - the number of complete waves
that pass a point in space in a given amount of
time.
 Amplitude - the maximum positive displacement
from the medium to the top or the crest of a
wave.
The Bohr Model
Neils Bohr
 The first scientist to explain atomic line spectra. He proposed that
electrons in an atom could occupy only certain levels. That is, the
energy of electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in defined
energy levels, called orbitals.
 He assigned a number to each energy level, known as the principal
quantum number (n)
 Electrons in low-energy levels can absorb energy and can be
promoted to higher-energy levels.
 When an electron moves from a high-energy level to a lower-energy
level, energy is emitted in the form of light.
 General form of the Bohr equation:
ΔE = 2.179 x 10-18 (1/n2final – 1/n2initial), J
Sample problems on calculation of
wavelength, frequency of waves,
energy:

1. What is the energy of gamma photon having

a wavelength of 1A? Repeat for a wavelength
of 1X unit (10-11 cm).
2. A local radio station broadcasts at a
frequency of 91.7 MHz (91.7 x 106 Hz). What
is the wavelength of these radiowaves?
3. What is the frequency of blue light with a
wavelength of 435 nm?
4. A laser emits light of frequency 4.74 x 1014
/s. What is the wavelength of light in nm?
5. Calculate the wavelength of the
radiation emitted when an electron in
a hydrogen atom moves from the
n=5 to the n=3 energy level. Is the
radiation visible?
6. A certain electromagnetic wave has
wavelength of 625 nm.
a) What is the frequency of the wave?
b) What region of the electromagnetic
spectrum is it found?
c) What is the energy of the wave?
Seatwork
1. If you double the frequency of a wave, what happens to the
wavelength of the wave? Prove you answer
2. Calculate the frequency (Hz) and wavelength (nm) of the emitted
photon when an electron drops from the n=4 to n=2 state.
3. The energy required to remove an electron from metal X is ΔE =
3.31 x 10-20 J. Calculate the maximum wavelength of light that can
photo eject an electron from metal X.
4. The retina of a human eye can detect light when radiant energy
incident on it is at least 4.0 x 10-17 J. For light of 600 nm
wavelength, how many photons does this correspond to if 1 photon
= 3.31x10-19J?
5. The blue color of the sky results from the scattering of sunlight by
air molecules. The blue light has a frequency of about 7.5 x 1014 Hz.
a) Calculate the wavelength, in nm, associated with this radiation.
b) Calculate the energy, in joules, of a single photon associated
with this frequency
Equivalence of Mass and Energy

Modern Science has been built on two

fundamental principles:
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of mass

*Under some conditions energy may be

converted into matter and matter into energy
such as Nuclear Fission.
*The military use of this energy has led to the
development of the nuclear chain reactor.
Equivalence of Mass and Energy

*When Einstein first proposed his theory of

relativity, one of his conclusions was that the mass
of a moving body should increase at its velocity
increases.
*For a body of rest mass mo, its mass m at any
velocity v will be given by the equation
𝑚𝑜
𝑚=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
*At small velocities there is little difference
between m and mo, but as v approaches c, m
becomes very large.
*At very high velocities, acceleration implies only
a slight increase in velocity and a substantial
increase in mass
Equivalence of Mass and Energy

 Another important conclusion from the theory

of relativity is that mass and energy are
interchangeable and related by the equation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
 Where E is the energy equivalence of a mass m.
 The extremely large size of the conversion
factor explains why equivalence of mass and
energy is not observed in ordinary chemical
reactions.
 When Nuclear Reactions are considered,
however, the situation is entirely different.
Equivalence of Mass and Energy
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝐸=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
Since the energy inherent in the mass itself is moc2, the
kinetic energy of a mass moving at high velocities
becomes:

𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝐸= − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
But when v approaches the velocity of light use
equation:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐸=
2
Nuclear Reactions
The theory of mass-energy equivalence is used to
help explain why nuclear reactions, such as fission
and fusion, release so much energy than a chemical
reaction.
 Nuclear Decay Reactions-Radioactive Decay
 an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed
into the nucleus of one or more other elements.
 The resulting daughter nuclei have a lower mass and are
lower in energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus that
decayed.
 Nuclear Transmutation Reactions
 a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another
nucleus to form a product nucleus that is more
massive than the starting material.
Nuclear Decay Reactions
 This procedure also allows us to predict the identity of
either the parent or the daughter nucleus if the identity
of only one is known. Regardless of the mode of decay,
the total number of nucleons is conserved in all nuclear
reactions.
 To describe nuclear decay reactions, chemists have
extended the 𝐴𝑍𝑋 notation for nuclides to include
radioactive emissions. The most notable addition is the
positron, a particle that has the same mass as an
electron but a positive charge rather than a negative
charge.
Nuclear Decay Reactions
Alpha Decay
 Many nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 undergo
alpha (α) decay, which results in the emission of a
helium-4 nucleus as an alpha (α) particle, 42α.
 The daughter nuclide contains two fewer protons and two
fewer neutrons than the parent. Thus α-particle emission
produces a daughter nucleus with a mass number A − 4
and a nuclear charge Z − 2 compared to the parent
nucleus. Radium-226, for example, undergoes alpha decay
to form radon-222:
Beta Decay
 Nuclei that contain too many neutrons often undergo beta
(β) decay, in which a neutron is converted to a proton
and a high-energy electron that is ejected from the
nucleus as a β particle:
Beta Decay
 Nuclei that contain too many neutrons often undergo beta
(β) decay, in which a neutron is converted to a proton
and a high-energy electron that is ejected from the
nucleus as a β particle.
 Although beta decay does not change the mass number of
the nucleus, it does result in an increase of +1 in the
atomic number because of the addition of a proton in the
daughter nucleus.
 Thus beta decay decreases the neutron-to-proton ratio,
moving the nucleus toward the band of stable nuclei. For
example, carbon-14 undergoes beta decay to form
nitrogen-14
Positron Emission
 Because a positron has the same mass as an electron but
opposite charge, positron emission is the opposite of
beta decay. Thus positron emission is characteristic of
neutron-poor nuclei, which decay by transforming a
proton to a neutron and emitting a high-energy positron:
Positron Emission
 Because a positron has the same mass as an electron but
opposite charge, positron emission is the opposite of
beta decay. Thus positron emission is characteristic of
neutron-poor nuclei, which decay by transforming a
proton to a neutron and emitting a high-energy positron:
 Like beta decay, positron emission does not change the
mass number of the nucleus. In this case, however, the
atomic number of the daughter nucleus is lower by 1 than
that of the parent. Thus the neutron-to-proton ratio has
increased, again moving the nucleus closer to the band of
stable nuclei. For example, carbon-11 undergoes positron
emission to form boron-11:
Electron Capture
 A neutron-poor nucleus can decay by either positron
emission or electron capture (EC), in which an electron in
an inner shell reacts with a proton to produce a neutron.
 When a second electron moves from an outer shell to take
the place of the lower-energy electron that was absorbed by
the nucleus, an x-ray is emitted.
Electron Capture
 A neutron-poor nucleus can decay by either positron
emission or electron capture (EC), in which an electron in
an inner shell reacts with a proton to produce a neutron.
 When a second electron moves from an outer shell to take
the place of the lower-energy electron that was absorbed by
the nucleus, an x-ray is emitted.
 Electron capture does not change the mass number of the
nucleus because both the proton that is lost and the neutron
that is formed have a mass number of 1. As with positron
emission, however, the atomic number of the daughter
nucleus is lower by 1 than that of the parent. Once again,
the neutron-to-proton ratio has increased, moving the
nucleus toward the band of stable nuclei. For example, iron-
55 decays by electron capture to form manganese-55.
Gamma Emission
 Many nuclear decay reactions produce daughter nuclei that
are in a nuclear excited state, which is similar to an atom
in which an electron has been excited to a higher-energy
orbital to give an electronic excited state. Just as an
electron in an electronic excited state emits energy in the
form of a photon when it returns to the ground state, a
nucleus in an excited state releases energy in the form of a
photon when it returns to the ground state. These high-
energy photons are γ rays. Gamma (γ) emission can occur
virtually instantaneously, as it does in the alpha decay of
uranium-238 to thorium-234, where the asterisk denotes
an excited state.
Spontaneous Fission
 Only very massive nuclei with high neutron-to-proton ratios
can undergo spontaneous fission, in which the nucleus
breaks into two pieces that have different atomic numbers
and atomic masses. This process is most important for the
transactinide elements, with Z ≥ 104. Spontaneous fission
is invariably accompanied by the release of large amounts
of energy, and it is usually accompanied by the emission of
several neutrons as well. An example is the spontaneous
fission of , which gives a distribution of fission products;
one possible set of products is shown in the following
equation.
Example

1. How much electrical energy

could theoretically be obtained
by the annihilation of 1 g of
matter?
2. Some beta particles given off by
the radioisotopes have velocities
as high as .99c. With a mass of
an electron of 9.1x10-28g What is
the kinetic energy of such a
particle?
Seatwork: Balance the ff
Nuclear Reactions

1. 150
64𝐺𝑑 → 𝛼+? 1. ? → −10𝑒 + 32
16𝑆
2. ? → 𝛼 + 255
100𝐹𝑚 2. 40
19𝐾 → 𝛽 + 𝛾+?
3. 144
60𝑁𝑑 → 𝛼+? 3. 239
94𝑃𝑢 → 𝛼 + 𝛾+?
4. 159
63 𝐸𝑢 → 0
−1𝑒+? 4. 226
88𝑅𝑎 → 𝛼 + 𝛾+?
5. 141
56 𝐵𝑎 → 0
−1𝑒+? 5. 214
84𝑃𝑏 → 𝛼 + 𝛾+?
Supplementary Problems
1. Radium-226 will undergo alpha decay.
-Write out this nuclear reaction
-Calculate the mass defect
-Calculate the energy released by this nuclear reaction
-Calculate the energy released per nucleon for this nuclear
reaction
2. Nitrogen-13 transmutes into carbon-13 by beta-positive
decay. Calculate the energy released per nucleon for this
beta-positive decay if the atomic masses are 13.005739u for
N-13 and 13.003355u for C-13.