Fourier’s Law

and the
Heat Equation

Chapter Two
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium

• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

 
q    k  T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).

– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the

   
medium  k   q/  T 
 
– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).

– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T  x, y , z 
 T  T  T 
q  k i k jk k (2.3)
x y z
qx qy qz

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T  r, , z 

 T  T  T 
q    k i k jk k (2.22)
r r  z
qr q qz

• Spherical Coordinates: T  r ,  , 
 T  T  T 
q  k i k jk k (2.25)
r r  r sin  
qr q q
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates  or  ,  , the temperature gradient is still

based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.
• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
qr  Ar qr  2 rLqr
or,
qr  Ar qr  2 rqr

– Sphere
qr  Ar qr  4 r 2 qr
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation

• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

  T    T    T  • T
  k   z  k z   q  c p
(2.17)
k
x  x  y  y    t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal energy Change in thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow) generation energy storage
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1   T  1   T    T  • T
 kr  k   k   q   c (2.24)
r r  r  r 2     z  z
p
 t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  • T
 kr    k    k sin    q   c (2.27)
r  r 2 sin 2      r 2 sin     
p
r 2 r  t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties

and No Generation

 2T 1 T

x 2  t

k
  thermal diffusivity of the medium
c p
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions

• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T  x, t t 0  T  x,0
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T  0, t   Ts

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

T T
k |x  0  qs |x  0  0
x x

Convection

T
k |x  0  h T  T  0, t  
x
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.

Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Properties (Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

Micro- and Nanoscale Effects

• Conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier (electron or
phonon) motion.

• For the solid state:

1
k  Cc mfp (2.7)
3

energy carrier mean free path → average distance

specific heat per traveled by an energy carrier before
unit volume. a collision.
average energy carrier velocity, c  .

• Energy carriers also collide with physical boundaries, affecting their propagation.

 External boundaries of a film of material

Properties (Micro- and Nanoscale Effects)

For L / mfp  1,
k x / k  1  2mfp /  3 L  (2.9a)

k y / k  1  mfp /  3L  (2.9b)

 Grain boundaries within a solid

Measured thermal conductivity of a ceramic material vs. grain size, L. mfp at T  300K  25nm.

• Fourier’s law does not accurately describe the finite energy carrier propagation
velocity. This limitation is not important except in problems involving extremely
small time scales.
Conduction Analysis

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Consider possible micro- or nanoscale effects in problems involving very
small physical dimensions or very rapid changes in heat or cooling rates.

• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature

distribution.

• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the

heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

• Applications:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Problem: Thermal Response of Plane Wall

Problem 2.46 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.

KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t  0), steady-
state (t  ), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m3).

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal

heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

 2T 1  T

 x2   t

Initial, t  0 : T  x,0   T uniform temperature



i
and the Boundaries: x=0  T/  x 0  0 adiabatic surface
conditions are: 

 x=L  k T/  x L = h T  L,t   T  surface convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

c) The heat flux, qx  x,t  , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as


Ein   qconv Asdt
0

Ein  hAs 
0
 T  T  L,t dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h 
T  T  L,t  dt  J/m3 
V L 0 

 
Problem: Non-uniform Generation due
to Radiation Absorption

Problem 2.28 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.

KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium subjected to radiative flux.

FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
q  x  , and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.

SCHEMATIC:
Problem : Non-uniform
Generation (Cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in medium, (3)

Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be characterized by an internal
volumetric heat generation term q  x  .

ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fourier’s law,
 dT   A 
q x  k    k - 2  a  e-ax  B
 dx   ka 
 A  A 
Front Surface, x=0: q x  0   k  +  1  B     kB <
 ka  a 
 A  A 
Rear Surface, x=L: q x  L   k  + e-aL  B    e-aL  kB . <
 ka  a 

(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

d  dT  q d  dT 
  0 or q=-k  
dx  dx  k dx  dx 
d  A -ax 
q  x   k   e  B   Ae-ax .
dx  ka 

( c ) Performing an energy balance on the medium,

Ein  Eout  Eg  0
Problem : Non-uniform
Generation (Cont.)

On a unit area basis

E g  Ein   q x  0   q x  L   

  E out
A
a

1  e-aL .  <

Alternatively, evaluate Eg by integration over the volume of the medium,

E g   q  x dx=  Ae-ax dx=-

L
0
L
0
A  -ax  L A
a 
e
0

a

1  e-aL . 