Basic Electronics

Different Instruments
 Topics
• Basic Introduction

• Role and Importance of General purpose test instrument

• Cathode-RAY Oscilloscope(CRO)

• Digital storage Oscilloscope(DSO),Theory and applications

• Function Generator,

• Different Power supply,

• Digital Multi-meter (DMM).

 Instrumentation
• Instrumentation is a branch of engineering that
deals with the measurement and control of
different parameters.
• Instrumentation is defined as "the art and science
of measurement and control".
• Measuring is used to monitor a process or
operation.
• Collective term for measuring instruments used
for indicating, measuring and recording physical
quantities
• Refer to a device or group of devices used for
direct reading
– Reading a thermometer
– Using sensors in complex industrial control systems.
Role and Importance of General purpose
Test Instruments
• MEASUREMENT AND CALIBRATION
– Measurement is vital in science, industry and
commerce. Measurement is also performed
extensively in our daily life. The following are some
examples:
– Measurements for health care: such as measuring
body temperature with a clinical thermometer,
checking blood pressure and many other tests
– Measurement for Household machines: home
security systems, refrigerators, microwave oven,
bread toasters, water level sensors etc.
– Measurement in Automobile Industry: rotational
speed of engine, vehicle linear speed, fluid levels, turn
signals, air pressure in tyres, etc.
– Measurement in Aircraft Systems: Navigation Systems,
Global Positioning Systems, weather radar etc.
– Measurement in Laboratory Instruments: To measure
electrical and chemical composition of a substance.
Example: Testing pollutants in water for drinking
– Other Measurements:
• Checking the time of day;
• Buying cloth for dresses;
• Purchase of vegetables and other groceries;
• Billing of power consumption through an energy meter
 Measurement Parameters
• Pressure, Temperature, weight, length, levels
of liquid, density
• Voltage, current, frequency, resistivity,
inductance, capacitance,
• Viscosity, chemical composition, vibration etc
• Goal: To improve system productivity,
reliability, optimization and stability or to
control parameters.
 Electronic Instruments
• Device for determining the values or
magnitude of any physical quantity which
works on some electronic principle.
• Electronic test equipment is used to create
signals and capture responses from electronic
devices under test (DUT)
– To ensure proper operation of DUT so that it is
proven and faults can be traced.
 Types of Test Equipment
• Basic Equipment
– Voltmeter
– Ohmmeter
– Ammeter
– Multi-meter
• Instruments used for the stimulus of circuit under test
– Power supplies
– Signal generator or Function Generator
– Digital pattern generator
– Pulse generator.
• Instruments used to analyze the response of circuit under test
– Oscilloscope
– Frequency Counter
• Connectors
– Test probes
– BNC cables
– Power cables etc
General Purpose Test Instruments
• Oscilloscopes
• Function Generator
• Different Power Supply
• Digital Multi-meter

These products are used across multiple

applications in environments ranging from labs
to manufacturing facilities
 What is Oscilloscope?
• Introduced by German Physicist Ferdinand Braun in
1897.
• "The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying
device - it draws a graph of an electrical signal.“
• Oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument
that allows observation of constantly varying signal
voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one
or more signals as a function of time.
• Other signals (such as sound or vibration) can be
converted to voltages and displayed
• Electrical Signal Visual signal
• Also called electron beam voltmeter.
• Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change
of an electrical signal over time, such that
voltage and time describe a shape which is
continuously graphed against a calibrated
scale.

• The observed waveform can be analyzed for

such properties as amplitude, frequency, rise
time, time interval, distortion and others.
This simple graph can tell you many things
about a signal. Here are a few:
• You can determine the time and voltage values of a
signal.
• You can calculate the frequency of an oscillating signal.
• You can find the phase difference between two signals.
• You can tell if a malfunctioning component is distorting
the signal.
• You can find out how much of a signal is direct current
(DC) or alternating current (AC).
• You can tell how much of the signal is noise and
whether the noise is changing with time.
• Visually see the signal “modifications” being carried out
real-time by different electronic components in any
given circuit
 What can we do with it?
Oscilloscopes are used by everyone

• Television repair technician

• Physicists

• An automotive engineer uses an oscilloscope to

measure engine vibrations

• A medical researcher uses an oscilloscope to

measure brain waves
 Types of Oscilloscope
ANALOG:
“An analog oscilloscope works by directly
applying a voltage being measured to an
electron beam moving across the oscilloscope
screen.”
DIGITAL
"In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the
waveform and uses an analog-to-digital
converter (or ADC) to convert the voltage being
measured into digital information."
Block Diagram of Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO)
 Major Blocks in Block Diagram
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Delay line
4. Time base generator
5. Horizontal amplifier
6. Trigger circuit
7. Power supply
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Cathode Ray Tube is the heart of the oscilloscope.
When the electrons emitted by the electron gun strikes
the phosphorus screen of the CRT, a visual signal is
displayed on the CRT.
Internal Structure of CRT
Indirectly
heated cathode
A control grid
surrounding
the cathode
A Focusing
electr
Anode on
Acceleratinggun
Anode produ
ces a
beam
 Electron Gun Assembly
• The electron gun assembly consists of an indirectly
heated cathode, a control grid surrounding the cathode,
a focusing anode and an accelerating anode
• The sole function of the electron gun assembly is to
provide a focused electron beam which is accelerated
towards the phosphor screen.
• The cathode is a nickel cylinder coated with an oxide
coating and emits plenty of electrons, when heated. The
emitting surface of the cathode should be as small as
possible, theoretically a point.
• Rate of emission of electrons or say the intensity of
electron beam depends on the cathode current, which
can be controlled by the control grid in a manner similar
to a conventional vacuum tube.
• Control Grid: Biased negative with voltage (-1000
to 1500 volts) and its function is to control the
number of electrons generated by cathode.
– The number and energy of the electrons being
emitted by the cathode influence the intensity and
focus aspects of the electron beam on the phosphor
coated screen
The electron beam after passing through the grid tends
to dilate (spread-out) as a solid cone and the
constituent electrons tend to lose velocity.
– For this it is necessary to have anode in the
arrangement which function is to accelerate the
electron beam in linear fashion with sharply focus
cathode rays
• Pre-accelerating anode: (Few 100V)
– Hollow cylinder with a hole in a diaphragm at its
center
– The diaphragm directs back all the electrons
striking it to the cathode.
– Although a narrow beam of electrons is achieved
after the First anode however, due to mutual
repulsion amongst the electrons the beam tends
to spread
• Focusing anode:
– Has two diaphragm with holes at its center.
– By means of an electric field a cylindrical shaped
converging electrical lens is generated and which
functions to shape the linearly accelerated beam of
electrons into a fine spot
– Electrostatic lenses are realized by applying suitable
potential to a pair of diaphragms wherein the electron
beam can be passed through the holes at their
centers. The focal length of the electrostatic lenses is
varied by varying the potential on the diaphragms
• Accelerating anode:
– Another level of amplified linear acceleration to the
electron beam and focuses it towards the screen
 Deflection Plates
• Electron beam, after leaving the electron gun, passes
through the two pairs of deflection pates
• One pair of deflection plates is mounted vertically
and deflects the beam in horizontal or X-direction
and so called the horizontal or l-plates.
• The other pair is mounted horizontally and deflects
the beam in vertical or Y-direction and called the
vertical or Y-plates. These plates are to deflect the
beam according to the voltage applied across them
 a potential
difference
across the x
plates
deflects the
trace
horizontally
 Screen for CRT
• As we know that some crystalline materials, such a phosphor, have
property of emitting light when exposed to radiation. This is called
the fluorescence characteristic of the materials. These fluorescent
materials continue to emit light even after radiation exposure is cut
off. This is called the phosphorescence characteristic of the materials.
• The length of time during which phosphorescence occurs is called the
persistence of the phosphor. The end wall of the CRT, called the
screen, is coated with phosphor. When electron beam strikes the CRT
screen, a spot of light is produced on the screen. The phosphor
absorbs the kinetic energy of the bombarding electrons and emits,
energy at a lower frequency in a visual spectrum.
• Among the fluorescent materials used are zinc orthosilicate giving a
green trace very suitable for visual observations; calcium tungstate
giving blue and ultra-violet radiations very suitable for photography
and zinc sulphide with other materials giving a white light suitable for
TV.
 light
produced on
the screen
by electron
beam
 Glass Body and Case
• The whole assembly is protected in a conical highly evacuated
glass housing through suitable supports.
• The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are usually
coated with a conducting material known as aquadag and
this coating is electrically connected to the accelerating
anode.
• The coating is provided in order to accelerate the electron
beam after passing between the deflecting plates and
to collect the electrons produced by secondary emission
when electron beam strikes the screen.
• Thus the coating prevents the formation of – ve charge on the
screen and state of equilibrium of screen is maintained.
• Horizontal and vertical marks are marked on the screen of the
CRT to provide user a correct measurement. These marks,
usually in rectangular form, are called graticule
 Horizontal Deflection System(HDS)

• Trigger Circuit: The trigger circuit ensures that generation of the

horizontal time-base (sweep) starts at the same point of the
vertical input signal
• It is the link between the signal waveform to be observed
(vertical input) and time base (horizontal time base)
• It synchronizes the horizontal deflection of the electron beam
with the vertical input signal waveform
• It ensures that each time the horizontal deflection starts at the
same point of the vertical input
• It consists of comparator which compares the value of the
vertical input signal and some predefined trigger voltage
value(variable) and gives it output to the time base generator
• Time Base Generator: The time-base (sweep)
generator controls the rate with which the
electron beam is scanned across the face of the
screen of the CRT (sawtooth wave)
• Horizontal Amplifier: Its function is to enhance
the level of the signals generated in the time-base
generator to the level required by the HDS plates
• Blanking Circuit: Using this, a very high negative
voltage is applied to control grid of electron gun
assembly or high positive voltage is applied to
cathode in CRT so that electrons bombardment is
stopped and thus screen is blanked out.
 Vertical Deflection System (VDS)

• It amplifies the small voltages and is used so that CRO is

able to measure even small changes in vertical direction
• It consists of very high class amplifier which amplifies the
input signal so as to nullify the effect of any distortion
 Delay Line
• It is fixed in series with the vertical amplifier and
introduces a DELAY in its signal processing
• The horizontal time-base is triggered by a portion
of the input signal that starts the Sweep generator,
the output of which is then fed to the horizontal
amplifier
• All this signal processing leads to a delay in order
to ensure that both vertical and horizontal signals
start simultaneously, a DELAY line is intentionally
introduced with the vertical amplifier
Detailed Block Diagram of CRO
 Other Controls
• Intensity Modulation: It can be done by inserting the
signal between the ground and the cathode. Intensity
modulation causes the brightening of the display. The
intensity can be varied by changing the grid potential
with respect to cathode.
• Positioning Controls: Position can be control by
applying small independent internal direct voltage
sources to the deflecting plates and with the help
of potentiometer we can control the position of signal.
• Focus Control: Focus can be controlled by changing the
focal length of the focusing electrode which acts like a
lens and focal length can be changed by the changing
potential of the focusing anode.
• Calibration Circuit: It consists of an oscillator
generating a known fixed voltage in square
shape which is usually for calibration.
• Astigmatism: A beam that is focused at the
center of the screen would be defocussed at
the edges because the lengths of electron path
are different for the center and edges.
– By adjusting the focus the spot can be made sharp
in order to avoid the problem of astigmatism.
 Uses
• Study of waveform
• Measurement of Voltage, Current, Frequency
and Time-period
• Measurement of AC / DC level of the input
signal
• A simple arithmetic functions like
sum/difference can be applied and observed
for two signals.
• Electricians use them to view signal voltages
 Limitations
• An analog scope needs a periodic trigger
event, and can display a periodic signal only.
• Heavy, bulky and costly . Consumes lot of
electricity and produces heat.
• Less accurate than other options (DSO).
• Short storage duration (waveform may loose)
• Inability to store multiple images
Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
 DSO
• A Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) is
an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the
signal digitally rather than using analog techniques.
• The input analog signal is sampled and then
converted into a digital record of the amplitude of
the signal at each sample time. The sampling
frequency should be not less than the Nyquist
rate to avoid aliasing. These digital values are then
turned back into an analogue signal for display on
a cathode ray tube (CRT)
DSO
 Working of DSO
• The analog signal being monitored is fed into a pre
amp, which changes it’s amplitude so that it falls within
the input range of the Analog to Digital Converter
(ADC) and the trigger detector
• When the resulting voltage crosses a threshold set by
the user the trigger unit signals the device to start
recording.
• The ADC samples the output of the pre amp at regular
intervals and the digital output from the ADC is then
stored in consecutive locations in the memory
• When the memory is full the recording is stopped
• The Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
continuously scans through the recording
producing a repeating analog signal representing
the contents of the memory, which is sent to the
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) for display. This is
required because the CRT image will fade away if
not continuously refreshed.
• If changes in the input voltage re-triggers the DSO
then the memory is overwritten with a new
recording unless the user puts the system into
HOLD mode, Hold mode allows the user to
analyze the signal trace for as long he/she
requires
Block Diagram of DSO
 Explanation for detailed block
diagram of DSO
• Data acquisition
– Sample and Hold Circuit & analog to digital
converter: It continuously samples and digitizes
the input signal at a rate determined by the
sample clock and transmit the digitized data to
memory for storage.
– Control Circuit: It consists of microprocessor and
determines whether the successive data points
are stored in successive memory location or not,
which is done by continuously updating the
memories
• Storage:
– When the memory is full, the next data point from
the ADC is stored in the first memory location
writing over the old data
– The data acquisition and the storage process is
continues till the control circuit receive a trigger
signal from either the input waveform or an
external trigger source.
– When the triggering occurs, the system stops and
enters into the display mode of operation in which
all or some part of the memory data is repetitively
displayed on the cathode ray tube
• Display Operation:
– In display operation, two DACs are used which gives
horizontal and vertical deflection voltage for the CRT
Data from the memory gives the vertical deflection of
the electron beam, while the time base counter gives
the horizontal deflection in the form of staircase
sweep signal.
– The screen display consist of discrete dots
representing the various data points but the number
of dot is very large as 1000 or more that they tend to
blend together and appear to be a smooth continuous
waveform
– The display operation ends when the operator presses
a front-panel button and commands the digital storage
oscilloscope to begin a new data acquisition cycle.
 Function Generator
• A function generator is a signal source that has the
capability of producing different types of waveforms
as its output signal. The most common output
waveforms are sine-waves, triangular waves, square
waves, and saw tooth waves. The frequencies of
such waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a
hertz to several hundred kHz
• In this instrument the frequency is controlled by
varying the magnitude of current that drives the
integrator. This instrument provides different types of
waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square
waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of
0.01 Hz to 100 kHz
• The frequency controlled voltage regulates two
current supply sources.
• Current supply source 1 supplies constant current to
the integrator whose output voltage rises linearly
with time. An increase or decrease in the current
increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage
and thus controls the frequency.
• The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state
at a predetermined maximum level, of the integrator
output voltage. This change cuts-off the current
supply from supply source 1 and switches to the
supply source 2.
• The current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current
to the integrator so that its output drops linearly with
time. When the output attains a predetermined level,
the voltage comparator again changes state and
switches on to the current supply source.
• The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose
frequency depends on the current supplied by the
constant current supply sources.
• The comparator output provides a square wave of the
same frequency as output.
• The resistance diode network changes the slope of the
triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces
a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion
 Frequency Control Network

• When capacitor are in charging, the output is zero.

• When they are fully charged, the resistors dissipate the charge and
conducts the current at the output.
• How frequent this happens depends on variable resistor 𝑅3 .
 Integrator Circuit

• The circuit operates by passing a current that charges or discharges

the capacitor Cf during the time under consideration, which strives to retain the virtual
ground condition at the input by off-setting the effect of the input current.
• if the op-amp is assumed to be ideal, nodes v1 and v2 are held equal, and so v2 is a virtual
ground
• The input voltage passes a current 𝑖1 , through the resistor producing a compensating
current flow through the series capacitor to maintain the virtual ground. This charges or
discharges the capacitor over time.
• Because the resistor and capacitor are connected to a virtual ground, the input current
does not vary with capacitor charge and a linear integration of output is achieved
 Voltage Comparator

• The voltage comparator is used to produce square waveform. The comparator is

the circuit that compares input voltage to a fixed reference voltage.
• The comparator is supplied with two voltage Constant voltage sources, V+ and V-
that have the same magnitude but different signs.
• If the input voltage is larger than the reference voltage(usually 0) it outputs V+ or
else V-.
• Since V+ and V- have constant values, the output will switch between value of V+
and V- thus giving square wave.
 Resistor Diode Network

• 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 acts as voltage divider.

• When voltage 𝑉𝑅2 > 𝑉1 , diode 𝐷1 becomes forward bias. There is more attenuation of
the output voltage levels above 𝑉1 than levels below 𝑉1 .
• With the presence of diode 𝐷1 and resistor 𝑅3 in the circuit, the output voltage rises
less steeply.
• When the output voltage falls below 𝑉1 , the diode 𝐷1 stops conducting as it is reverse
biased. The circuit behaves like a simple voltage divider circuit.
• This is also true for negative half cycle.
• If resistor values are chosen appropriately, we get approximate sine wave.
 Function Generator Controls
• Frequency: As would be expected, this control alters the basic
frequency at which the waveform repeats. It is independent of
the waveform type.
• Waveform type :This enables the different basic waveform types
to be selected:
• Sine wave
• Square wave
• Triangular wave
• DC offset : This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to
0V or ground.
• Duty cycle : This control on the function generator changes the
ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a square wave signal,
i.e. changing the waveform from a square wave with a 1:1 duty
cycle to a pulse waveform, or a triangular waveform with equal
rise and fall times to a sawtooth.
 Digital Multimeter
• Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several
electronic measurement task in one tool. It is also known as
the voltmeter or Ohm meter or Volt Ohm meter. The
standard and basic measurements performed by multimeter
are the measurements of amperes, volts, and ohms. Apart
from that, this digital multimeter perform many additional
measurements by using digital and logic technology. These
may include temperature, frequency, continuity, capacitance
etc.
• The new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter
are more efficient, faster and work with a large accuracy as
compared to an Analog multimeter. But in the case of
additional features, it is not accurate but close to the reading.
 Digital Multimeter block diagram

The digital multimeter is an instrument which is capable of measuring a.c. voltages,

d.c. voltages, a.c. and d.c. currents and resistances over several ranges. The basic
circuit of a digital multimeter is always a d.c. voltmeter as shown in the Figure
 Features of DMM (DVM)
• It is light in weight.
• Capable of giving more accurate readings.
• It measures lots of physical quantities like
voltage, current, resistance, frequency etc.
• It measures different electrical parameters at
high frequencies with the help of special probes.
• It is more costly as compared to analog
multimeter
• It’s internal circuitry is more complex.
Working Principle of DMM
• In a typical Digital multimeter the input signal i.e ac
or dc voltage, current, resistance, temperature or
any other parameter is converted to dc voltage
within the range of the Analog to Digital
Converter(ADC).
• The analog to digital converter then converts the
pre-scaled dc voltage into its equivalent digital
numbers which will be displayed on the display unit
• Sometimes, digital controller block is implemented
with a microcontroller or a microprocessor
manages the flow of information within the
instrument
– This block will coordinate all the internal functions as
well as transferring information to external devices such
as printers or personal computer
 DMM parts and functions
• A DMM is divided into three parts
– Display: The LCD screen present on the upper portion
of the multimeter basically displays four or more digits
and also shows negative value if necessary. A few or
today’s multimeters have illuminated the display for
better viewing in low light situations.
– Selection Dial: It allows the user to set the multimeter
to read different electrical parameter such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage, resistance,
capacitance etc. You can easily turn the dial anywhere
for specific parameter measurement
– Ports: Two ports are available on the front of
every multimeter except in some four ports are
available for measuring current in mA or A. We
plugged two probes into these ports which are of
different colour i.e. one is of red colour and other
is of black colour. Ports are:
• COM: It stands for common and is almost connected to
ground or considered as a -ve connection of a circuit.
We generally insert the black color probe into COM
port
• mAVΩ: This port allows the measurement of current
(up to 200 mA), voltage and resistance or considered as
a +ve connection of a circuit. We generally insert the
red color probe into mAVΩ port
 Characteristics of DMM
• Resolution: Resolution is the number of pieces or parts that the
output or displayed reading from a sensor or measuring instrument
can be broken down into without any instability in the signal or
reading
• For example, if the digital multimeter in the range of 4V resolution
is 1mV, then the 1V signal measurement, you can see 1mV
(1/1000 volts) small changes
• The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in "digits"
of resolution. For example, the term 5½ digits refers to the
number of digits displayed on the display of a multimeter.
• A 5½ digit multimeter would have five full digits that display
values from 0 to 9 and one half digit that could only display 0 or 1.
Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to
199,999.
1
• It is given by 𝑅 = 𝑛 ; where n is number of full digits on display
10
• Accuracy: It tells you how closely the output or displayed
reading from a sensor or measuring instrument will match the
‘true’ value.
• Eg: In the case of our kitchen scale, this figure is <±0.1% of
10kg, which means that its reading will match the applied
weight to ±0.010kg (±10 grams) or less
• Digital Multimeter generally take measurements
with accuracy superior to their analog counterparts
• an accuracy of typically 0.5% on the DC voltage ranges
• Digital meters usually specify accuracy as a percentage of
reading plus a percentage of full-scale value, sometimes
expressed in counts rather than percentage terms
• Mainstream bench-top multimeter are available with
specified accuracy of better than ±0.01%
• Accuracy specifications usually contain the effect of
errors due to gain and offset parameters.
– Offset errors can be given as a unit of measurement such
as volts or ohms and are independent of the magnitude
of the input signal being measured. An example might be
given as ±1.0 millivolt (mV) offset error, regardless of the
range or gain settings.
– In contrast, gain errors do depend on the magnitude of
the input signal and are expressed as a percentage of the
reading, such as ±0.1%. Total accuracy is therefore equal
to the sum of the two: ±(0.1% of input +1.0 mV).
• Sensitivity and input impedance:
– When used for measuring voltage, the input
impedance of the multimeter must be very high
compared to the impedance of the circuit being
measured; otherwise circuit operation may be
changed, and the reading will also be inaccurate.
– The impedance of the meter varies depending on the
basic sensitivity of the meter movement and the range
which is selected.
– For example, a meter with a typical 20,000 ohms/volt
sensitivity will have an input resistance of two million
ohms on the 100 volt range (100 V * 20,000 ohms/volt
= 2,000,000 ohms)
– For general-purpose digital multimeters, the lowest
voltage range is typically several hundred millivolts AC
or DC, but the lowest current range may be several
hundred milliamperes.
• Burden voltage:
– Any ammeter, including a multimeter in a current range,
has a certain resistance. Most multimeters inherently
measure voltage, and pass a current to be measured
through a shunt resistance, measuring the voltage
developed across it. The voltage drop is known as the
burden voltage, specified in volts per ampere. The value
can change depending on the range the meter selects,
since different ranges usually use different shunt
resistors.
– The burden voltage can be significant in low-voltage
circuits. The current reading should be the same and
circuit operation should not be affected if burden voltage
is not a problem. If this voltage is significant it can be
reduced (also reducing the inherent accuracy and
precision of the measurement) by using a higher current
range.
• Alternating current sensing:
– A multimeter includes an AC to DC conversion circuit for
making alternating current measurements. Basic meters
utilize a rectifier circuit to measure the average or peak
absolute value of the voltage, but are calibrated to
show the calculated root mean square (RMS) value for
a sinusoidal waveform; this will give correct readings for
alternating current as used in power distribution
– More expensive multimeters include an AC to DC
converter that measures the true RMS value of the
waveform within certain limits.
– RMS sensing is necessary for measurements on non-
sinusoidal periodic waveforms, such as found in audio
signals and variable-frequency drives.
 Different Power Supply
• A power supply is an electronic device that
supplies electric energy to an electrical load.
• The primary function of a power supply is to
convert one form of electrical energy to another
and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes
referred to as electric power converters.
• Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone
devices, whereas others are built into larger
devices along with their loads. Examples of the
latter include power supplies found in desktop
computers and consumer electronics devices.
 Types

DC
AC-DC
Linear
Regulator
Switched AC Power
mode Power
supply

Programmable
Uninterruptible
High Voltage
 Types
• DC- DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC
voltage to its load.
• AC to DC- DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as
an energy source.
• Linear- It uses linear voltage regulator whose function is
to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant, often
specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often
provide a current limiting function to protect the power
supply and load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially
destructive current).
• AC- AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a
wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers it to the desired
voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.
 Variable AC Power Supply
• The different AC voltages are
generated by using a
transformer.
• The transformer may have
multiple windings or taps, in
which case the instrument uses
switches to select the different
voltage levels.
• Alternatively, a variable
transformer (adjustable
autotransformer) can be used to
continuously vary the voltages.
Some variable AC supplies are
included meters to monitor the
voltage, current, and/or power.
 Linear Power Supply
• Linear power supplies gain their name from the
fact that they use linear, i.e. non-switching
techniques to regulate the voltage output from
the power supply.
• The function of a linear voltage regulator is to
convert a varying DC/AC voltage to a constant,
often specific, lower DC voltage.
• In addition, they often provide a current limiting
function to protect the power supply and load
from overcurrent (excessive, potentially
destructive current).
Unregulated Linear Power Supply
• Unregulated power supplies contain a step-down
transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor, and a
bleeder resistor. This type of power supply,
because of simplicity, is the least costly and most
reliable for low power requirements.
• The main disadvantage is that the output voltage
is not constant. It will vary with the input voltage
and the load current, and the ripple is not suitable
for electronic applications. The ripple can be
reduced by changing the filter capacitor to an LC
(inductor-capacitor) filter, but the cost becomes
more.
• Input Transformer: The input transformer is used
to convert the incoming line voltage down to the
required level of the power supply. It also isolates
the output circuit from the line supply. Here we are
using a step-down transformer.
• Rectifier: The rectifier used to convert the incoming
signal from an AC format into raw DC. (full-wave
rectifier)
• Filter Capacitor: The pulsated DC from the rectifier
is fed to the smoothing capacitor. It will remove the
unwanted ripples in the pulsated DC.
• Bleeder Resistor: Bleeder Resistor is also known as
a power supply drain resistor. It is connected across
the filter capacitors to drain their stored charge so
that the power system supply is not dangerous.
 Regulated Linear Power Supply
• Regulated linear power supplies are same to the
unregulated linear power supply except that a 3-
terminal regulator is used in place of the bleeder
resistor.
• The main aim of this supply is to provide the
required level of DC power to the load. The DC
power supply uses an AC supply as the input.
• Different applications require different levels of
attributes voltages, but nowadays the DC power
supplies provide an accurate output voltage.
• And this voltage is regulated by an electronic
circuitry so that it provides a constant output
voltage over a wide range of output loads
• Smoothing: Once rectified from an AC signal, the
DC needs to be smoothed to remove the varying
voltage level. Large value capacitors are generally
used for this purpose.
• Voltage Regulator: A linear regulator has an
active (BJT or MOSFET) pass device (series or
shunt) controlled by a high gain differential
amplifier (Op-Amp/Comparator). It compares the
output voltage with a precise reference voltage
and adjusts the pass device to maintain a
constant level output voltage.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Linear Power Supplies
Advantages:
• Simplicity
• Reliability
• low noise levels
• low cost
Disadvantage:
• Linear regulators are ideal for many low-power
applications.
• For higher power application disadvantages to linear
power supplies include size, high heat loss, and lower
efficiency levels
Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
• A switch-mode power supply (switching-mode power
supply or SMPS) is an electronic power supply that
uses a switching regulator in order to control the
conversion of electrical power in a highly efficient
manner.
• A (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that converts power
using switching devices that are turned on and off at
high frequencies, and storage components such as
inductors or capacitors to supply power when the
switching device is in its non-conduction state.
The SMPS has a rectifier, filter capacitor, series transistor,
regulator, transformer, but is more complicated than the
other power supplies that we have discussed.
D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters belong to the category of Switched Mode
Power Supplies (SMPS). In a SMPS, the active device(transistor) that provides regulation is
always operated in cut-off or in saturation mode. The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher
frequency around 15 to 50 kHz using an active device like the BJT, power MOSFET or SCR and
the converter transformer. Here the size of the ferrite core reduces inversely with the frequency.
The lower limit is around 5 kHz for silent operation and an upper limit of 50 kHz to limit the
losses in the choke and in active switching elements. The transformed wave form is rectified and
filtered. A sample of the output voltage is used as the feedback signal for the drive circuit for the
switching transistor to achieve regulation.
• The oscillator in above figure allows the control
element to be switched ON and OFF. The control
element usually consists of a transistor switch, an
inductor, and a diode. For each switch ON, energy is
pumped into the magnetic field associated with the
inductor which is a transformer winding in practice.
This energy is then released to the load at the desired
voltage level.
• By varying the duty cycle or frequency of switching, we
can vary the stored energy in each cycle and thus
control the output voltage. Higher efficiency is
obtained since only the energy required is pumped to
maintain the load current hence no power dissipation.
Block diagram of SMPS (DC-DC
Converter)
• Here, the primary power received from AC main is rectified
and filtered as high voltage DC. It is then switched at a huge
rate of speed approximately 15 kHz to 50 kHz and fed to the
primary side of the step-down transformer. The step-down
transformer is only a fraction of the size of a comparable 50
Hz unit thus reliving the size and weight problems. The
output at the secondary side of the transformer is rectified
and filtered. Then it is sent to the output of the power
supply. A sample of this output is sent back to the switch to
control the output voltage.
• SMPS rely on PWM to control the average value of the
output voltage. The average value of the repetitive pulse
waveform depends on the area under the waveform. As
load increases, output voltage tends to fall.
• Most switching power supplies regulate their output
using the method called Pulse – Width Modulation
(PWM). The power switch which feeds the primary of
the step-down transformer is driven by the PWM
oscillator.
• When the duty cycle is at 50%, then the maximum
amount of energy will be passed through the step-
down transformer. As the duty cycle decreases the
power transmitted is less hence low power dissipation.
• The Pulse Width signal given to the switch is inversely
proportional to the output voltage. The width or the
ON time of the oscillator is controlled by the voltage
feedback from the secondary of the rectifier output and
forms a closed loop regulator. Since switching regulator
is complex, modern IC packages like Motorola MC
3420/3520 or Silicon General SG 1524 can be used
instead of discrete components
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
SMPS
• Advantage
– Lower weight
– Small size
– Higher efficiency
– Lower power dissipation
– Reduced costs

• Disadvantage
– Complexity of circuit
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
• UPS is a Backup power source that, in the case of
power failure or fluctuations or voltage level drop
to undesirable level, allows enough time for an
orderly shutdown of the system or for a standby
generator to start up. UPS consists usually of a
bank of rechargeable batteries and power sensing
and conditioning circuitry.
• Need for UPS:
– Modern electronic gadgets and computer are highly
sensitive to the power fluctuation.
– Disruption of power leads to data loss /corruption/
malfunction
 Programmable Power Supply
A programmable power supply is one that
allows remote control of its operation through
an analog input or digital interface such as
RS232 or GPIB. Controlled properties may
include voltage, current, and in the case of AC
output power supplies, frequency. They are
used in a wide variety of applications, including
automated equipment testing, crystal growth
monitoring, semiconductor fabrication, and x-
ray generators.
 High Voltage Power Supply
• High voltage power supply-A high voltage power
supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands
of volts.
• High voltage power supplies typically apply the
bulk of their input energy to a power inverter,
which in turn drives a voltage multiplier or a high
turns ratio, high voltage transformer, or both
(usually a transformer followed by a multiplier) to
produce high voltage. The high voltage is passed
out of the power supply through the special
connector, and is also applied to a voltage divider
that converts it to a low voltage metering signal
compatible with low voltage circuitry.
END