Genomes
Unit 5
Objectives
• Outline steps from gene to protein.
• Discuss the replicates of viral genome.
• Describe the bacterial genome.
• Relate transfer and recombination of
bacterial genome to environmental health
issues.
Structure of DNA
• Watson and Crick were responsible for the
model of DNA we have today.
• Four nucleic acid bases are found in DNA:
– Adenine
– Ctyosine
– Guanine
– Thymine
• The backbone of the DNA chain consists of
alternating repeats of phosphate and pentose
sugar deoxyribose.
• Connected to each sugar is one of the nucleic
acid bases.
PYRIMIDINES PURINES
Structure of DNA
• DNA exists as two poly nucleotide strands whose
base sequences are complimentary.
• The complimentarity of DNA arises because of
specific base pairing of the purine and pyrimidine
bases.
• Adenine always pairs with thymine.
• Cytosine always pairs with guanine.
• The two strands in the resulting double-stranded
molecule are arranged in an antiparallel fashion.
– One runs 5’ to 3’ and the other runs 3’ to 5’.
• The two strands are wrapped around each other to
form a double helix.
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Genes and the steps in information
flow
• All genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic
acid, DNA.
• This information is present in the sequence
of bases:
– Purine (adenine and guanine)
– Pyrimidine ( thymine and cytosine)
• The information stored in the DNA is
transferred to ribonucleic acid, RNA.
RNA occurs in three forms
– mRNA
• Is a single uncoiled strand of RNA
that carries the specific information
for making a protein.
– tRNA
• Each of the 20 t RNA is a single
strand of RNA that folds back on it
self to form a specific shape. Each
tRNA bonds with only one specific
amino acid and carries it to the
ribosome.
– rRNA
• Ribosomal RNA which is in a
globular form is an important part
of the structure of ribosomes and
has a catalytic functions needed
during protein synthesis.
• DNA, RNA and proteins all contain
genetic information in their sequences
and are referred to as informational
macromolecules.
Three stages of transfer of information
• Replication
– DNA double helix consists of two long chains. During
replication the helix unwinds and two double helixes are
formed.
• Transcription
– Protein synthesis occurs by the production of a RNA
intermediate called messenger ribonucleic acid, mRNA.
This transfer of information of DNA to RNA is called
transcription.
• Translation
– The sequence in a amino acids in a polypeptide is
determined by a specific sequence of bases in the mRNA.
Three bases encode a amino acid, each triplet is called a
codon.
codon
DNA Transcription
• RNA is synthesized resembles DNA
replication in that the sequence of the
bases in the RNA strand is determined by
the complimentary base pairing with one
of the DNA strands, the template strand.
• Because the DNA is being copied from
one form DNA to RNA the process is
called transcription.
DNA Transcription
• The process is carried out with the
enzyme RNA polymerase which catalyzes
the formation of phosphodiester bonds
between ribonucleotides.
• DNA is required as the template.
• Ribonucleoside triphosphophates ATP,
GTP, CTP, UTP are required.
• During elongation of an RNA chain,
ribonucleoside triphosphates are added to the 3’
OH of the ribose of the preceding nucleotide.
• Polymerization is driven by the release of energy
from the two energy rich phosphate bonds of the
incoming ribonucleoside triphosphate.
• In both DNA replication and RNA transcription the
overall direction of chain growth is from the 5’ OH
to the 3’ OH end, thus the newly synthesized
strand is antiparallel to the template strand.
• Does not require a primer as DNA polymerase to
initiate transcription, so new nucleotides strands
can be initiated.
DNA Translation
• Biological transfer occurs as the nucleic acid
template and the amino acid sequence of the
polypeptide corresponds.
• The genetic code makes this possible.
• A triplet code of three bases is called a codon.
The triplet code is written as RNA rather than
DNA as mRNA is translated.
• There are 64 possible codons 43 (4X4X4) there
are also specific codons for starting and
stopping.
The Genetic Code
DNA Translation
Each tRNA
• Can link with a specific amino acid and
• Recognize the appropriate mRNA codon for that
particular amino acid.
• Each tRNA has an anticodon which is a
sequence complementary to the mRNA codon.
• Each tRNA anticodon binds to a mRNA codon.
• The amino acids carried by the tRNAs are linked
together in the order specified by the mRNA.
tRNA
DNA Translation
• Ribosomes attach to
one end of the mRNA
and travel along it,
allowing the tRNAs to
attach sequentially to
the codons of the
mRNA.
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• Prokaryotes have circular pieces of DNA
– No nuclear membrane
– DNA lies in cytoplasm
• Eukaryotes have linear pieces of DNA
present in individual chromosomes.
– DNA present in nucleus.
– Ribosomes in ER and cytoplasm, thus
transcription and translation are two separate
processes.
• Eukaryotes have non-coding regions present
within genes:
– Exons are the coding sequence
– Introns are the noncoding sequences.
Viral replication
• Two types of reproduction exist in viruses
the lytic and lysogenic cycles.
– Lytic
• The virus lyses the host cell.
– Lysogenic
• The viral genome usually becomes integrated into
the host DNA and is then referred to as a
prophage.
prophage When the host DNA replicates the
prophage also replicates.
Lytic cycle
Five steps of replication.
1. Attachment or absorption
– The virus attaches to receptors on the host cell
wall.
2. Penetration
– The nucleic acid of the virus moves through the
plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm of
the host cell. The capsid of a phage remains on
the outside, but many viruses that infect animal
cells enter the host cell intact.
Lytic cycle
3. Replication and synthesis
– Viral genome has all the information necessary to
produce new viruses. Once inside, the virus degrades
the host cell nucleic acid and uses host cell to
synthesize the necessary components for its replication.
4. Assembly
– The newly synthesized viral components are assembled
into new viruses.
5. Release
– Assembled viruses are released from the cell.
Generally, lytic enzymes produces by the phage late in
the replication process, destroy the host plasma
membrane. Phage release typically occurs all at once
and results in rapid cell lysis, animal viruses are slowly
released.
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Lysogenic cycle
• Temperate viruses do not always destroy their hosts. A
long-term relationships exits between the phage and the
host where DNA of the phage is incorporated into host
DNA.
Cycle
1. Attachment
• The virus attaches to receptors on the host cell wall.
2. Penetration
• The phage breaks through the bacterial cell and releases viral
DNA into host cell.
3. Integration
• The viral DNA is incorporated into host DNA. At this stage it is
called a non-infective prophage.
4. Replication
• When the host DNA is being replicated the viral DNA is replicated
as well. In some instances the prophage will may excise itself
from the host DNA and enter a lytic stage of existence.
• Bacteria also able to transfer information
by:
– Transformation
• Fragments of DNA released by a cell are taken in
by another bacterial cell.
– Transduction
• A phage carries bacterial genes from one
bacterial cell into another.
– Conjugation
• Two cells of different mating types (F+ and F-)
come together and genetic material is transferred
from one cell to the next.
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Effects of Bacterial Genome
Transfer
• Lysogenic conversions result in toxic effects of bacterial
infections. Phage genome transfers to the bacterial cell
genes that code for toxins.
• Transferring of genes between bacteria results in:
– passing on of antibacterial properties from one bacterium to
another (resistant factors, R factors). These genes code for
proteins that modify or destroy antibiotics.
– Transferring of Fertility factors, F factors. These genes
determine whether a bacterium is F+ or F-.
– Passing on of metabolic factors. The recipient bacterium is able
to carry out metabolic functions it does not usually carry out, for
example, able to metabolise hydrocarbons life petroleum.