Electricity, Magnetism, and

Electromagnetism
 Electrostatics

 The study of stationary charges

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 2
ELECTRIC FIELD
 LAWS OF
ELECTROSTATICS
 REPULSION-ATTRACTION
 COULOMB’S LAW

 DISTRIBUTION

 CONCENTRATION

 MOVEMENT
REPULSION-ATTRACTION
 COULOMB’S LAW

 The force between two charges is

 Directly proportional to the product
of their magnitudes
 Inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them
LAW OF DISTRIBUTION
LAW OF CONCENTRATION
LAW OF MOVEMENT
 ELECTRIFICATION
 Transfer or movement of electron from one
object to another object
 Describe the process of electron charges being
added to or subtracted from an object
 Electrified: if object has too few or too many
electrons
 Created by three methods:
 FRICTION
 CONTACT
 INDUCTION
 FRICTION
 Occurs when one object is rubbed
against another
 Cold Weather (low humidity): ideal

conditions for electron transfer

 Example:

 Rubbing the hands

 Combing the hair
 CONTACT

 Occurs when two object touch, permitting

electrons to move from one to the other
 Simple equalization of charges
 Example:
 Walking across a woolen carpet in a room with low
humidity (touched by a positive object)
 INDUCTION
 The process of electrical fields acting on
another without contact
 The most important method
 Rationale: because it is the one used in the
operation of electronic devices (e.g. transformers
& electric motor)
 Examples:
 Induction motor
 Lightning
 ELECTRODYNAMICS
 The study of electric charges in motion
 Electron Movement:

 Facilitated by materials that easily permit

electrons
 Inhibited by materials that resist the flow of
electrons
 Vacuum: a space from which air has been
removed
 Permits the electrons to reach the speed
necessary for x-ray production
FOUR ELECTRICAL STATES
OF MATTER

 CONDUCTOR
 INSULATOR

 SEMICONDUCTOR

 SUPERCONDUCTOR
 CONDUCTOR
 Any substance through which electrons
flow easily
 Characteristics:

 Variable resistance
 Obeys Ohm’s law
 Requires voltage
 Examples: copper, aluminum & water
 INSULATOR
 Any material that does not allow
electron flow
 Characteristics:

 Does not permit electron flow

 Extremely high resistance
 Necessary with high voltage
 Examples: glass, rubber & clay
 SEMICONDUCTOR
 A material that some conditions
behaves as an insulator & as a
conductor
 Characteristics:

 Can be conductive
 Can be resistive
 Basis for computers
 Examples: silicon & germanium
 SUPERCONDUCTOR
 Any material that allows electrons to
flow without resistance
 Characteristics:

 No resistance to electron flow

 No electric potential required
 Must be very cold
 Examples: niobium & titanium
 ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Movement of electrons along the wire
 Types: AC or DC
 Unit: Ampere (A)
 Symbol: I
 Ampere: electric charge of 1 C flowing through a
conductor each second
 Electrons at high voltage
 High potential energy
 High capacity to do work
 Inhibited electron flow
 High resistance
DIRECTION OF ELECTRON
FLOW
DIRECT CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT
 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

 Electric potential, voltage or electromotive

force (EMF)
 The force or strength of electron flow

 The total maximum difference of potential

difference between the positive and

negative ends of the electron source
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
RESISTANCE
 FACTORS AFFECTING
RESISTANCE

 The ability to conduct electrons

 The length of the conductors

 The cross-sectional diameter

 The temperature
 ABILITY TO CONDUCT
ELECTRONS
 Conductor
 Allows the electrons to flow easily
 Lower resistance

 Insulator
 Does not allow the electrons to flow
 Higher resistance
 LENGTH OF THE
CONDUCTORS
 Directly proportional to the
resistance
 Increased Length of Wire:
increases resistance
 Decreased Length of Wire:
decreases resistance
 CROSS-SECTIONAL
DIAMETER
 Inversely proportional to the
resistance
 Large Diameter: small amount of

resistance
 Small Diameter: large amount of

resistance
 TEMPERATURE

 Directly proportional to the

resistance
 Higher Temperature: more
resistance
 Lower Temperature: less
resistance
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
 A pathway that permits electrons to move in a
complete circle from their source through the
through resisting electrical devices and back
to the source
 Copper Wire: the most common pathways
provided for the movement of EC
 Types: series and parallel
SERIES CIRCUIT
 RULES

 TOTAL CURRENT = to the current

through each circuit element
 TOTAL RESISTANCE = the sum of the

individual resistances
 TOTAL VOLTAGE = the sum of the

individual voltages
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 A series circuit contains three
resistive elements that have
values of 8, 12 and 15 Ω. If the
voltage is 110 V, what is the
total resistance, the current
through each resistor, and the
voltage across each resistor?
 SOLUTION
 GIVEN:
 R1=8 Ω; R2=12; R3=15
 Vt=110 volts
 RULES for SERIES:
 Rt = R1 + R2 + R 3
 It = I1 = I2 = I3
 V t = V1 + V 2 + V3
 SOLUTION
 What is the total resistance?
 Given: = R1=8; R2=12; R3=15
 Rules: Rt = R1 + R 2 + R 3
 Rt = 8 + 12 + 15
 Rt = 35 ohms
 SOLUTION
 What is the current through each
resistor?
 Formula: It = Vt/Rt
 Rules: It = I1 = I2 = I3
 Given: Rt = 35 ohms; Vt = 110 volts
 It = 110/35
 It = 3.14 A
 SOLUTION
 What is the voltage across each
resistor?
 Formula: V = IR
 Rules: Vt = V 1 + V2 + V3
 Given:
• R1 = 8 ohms; R2 = 12 ohms; R3 = 15 ohms
• It = I1 = I2 = I3 = 3.14 A
SOLUTION
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 RULES

 TOTAL VOLTAGE = to the voltage

through each circuit element
 TOTAL CURRENT = the sum of the

individual currents
 TOTAL RESISTANCE = the sum of the

individual resistances
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 A parallel circuit contains three resistive
elements that have values of 8, 12 and
15 Ω. If the voltage is 110 V, what is the
total resistance, the current through
each resistor, and the voltage across
each resistor?
 SOLUTION
 What is the total resistance
 Rules: 1/Rt= 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
 Given: R1=8 Ω; R2=12 Ω; R3=15 Ω
 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
 1/Rt = 1/8 + 1/12 + 1/15
 1/Rt = 0.125 + 0.083 + 0.067
 1/Rt = 0.275
 Rt = 1/0.275
 Rt = 3.63 ohms
 SOLUTION

 What is the current through each

resistor?
 Rules: It = I1 + I2 + I3
 Formula: I = V/R
 Given: V=110 V; R1=8 Ω; R2=12 Ω; R3=15
Ω
SOLUTION
 SOLUTION
 What is the voltage across each
resistor?
 Rules: Vt = V1 = V2 = V3
 Formula: Vt = ItRt
 Given: It =30.25 A; Rt=3.57 ohms
 Vt = ItRt
 Vt = (30.25)(3.63)
 Vt = 109.8 V or 110 V
 DEVICES THAT PREVENTS
SHORT CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT BREAKER
FUSE
 CIRCUIT BREAKER

 Prevents short circuit

 Constructed to permit the breaking of the

circuit before a dangerous temperature is

reached
 Can be reset once the problem has been

located
 FUSE
 Prevents short circuit
 Used to protect the circuit elements from

overload by operating the circuit in the

event of a power surge
 Constructed with a metal tab that will melt

when dangerously heated

 Not reusable

 Must be replaced
 OHM’S LAW
 The voltage across the total circuit or
any portion of the circuit is equal to the
current times the resistance
 Formulas:

 V = IR (for voltage)
 R = V/I (for resistance)
 I = V/R (for current)
 Definition of Terms
 Voltage(V) – the amount of electrical
energy per unit charge
 Measured in volt
 Current(I) – charge per unit time
 Measured in ampere
 Resistance (R) – opposes current flow
 Power = amount of energy consumed

per unit time

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 57
 ELECTRIC POWER
 Measured in: watts (W)
 1 W: 1 A (current) x 1 V (voltage)

 Formulas:

 P = IV
 P = I2R (for power losses)
 X-ray Imaging System: 20-150 kW
 QUESTION

 An x-ray imaging system that

draws a current of 80 A is
supplied with 220 V. What is
the power consumed?
 SOLUTION

 Given: I = 80 A; V = 220 V
 Formula: P = IV

 P = (80)(220)

 P = 17,600 W

 P = 17.6 kW
 QUESTION

 Calculate the power loss (in kW) in a

circuit where the current flowing is 100
amperes and the total line resistance is
2 ohms
 SOLUTION
 Given: I = 100 A; R= 2 Ω
 Formula: P = I2R

 P = (100)2(2)

 P = (10,000)(2)

 P = 20,000 W

 P = 20 kW
 QUESTION

 The overall resistance of a mobile x-ray

imaging system is 10 Ω. When plugged
into a 110 V receptacle, how much
current does it draw & how much power is
consumed?
 SOLUTION
 Given: V = 110 V; R= 10 Ω
 Formula: I = V/R

 I = 110/10

 I = 11 A

 Given: I = 11 A; V = 110 V

 Formula: P= IV

 P= (11)(110)

 P= 1210 W
 MAGNETISM
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MAGNETISM
 Magnetism
 Property of some forms of matter to attract iron
 Magnetic dipole – small magnet created by the
electron spin.
 Magnetic moment – nuclear magnetic dipole
generated by a spinning hydrogen nucleus.
 Magnetic field – created by a moving or spinning
charge.
 Magnetic field strength – force around a moving
charge measured in tesla
 1T = 10,000 gauss

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 67
ORBITAL MAGNETIC
MOMENT
SPIN MAGNETIC MOMENT
MAGNETIC DIPOLE
MAGNETIC DOMAIN
MAGNETIC LINES OF FLUX
MAGNETIC LINES OF FLUX
MAGNETIC FIELD
STRENGTH
 CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETS BY TYPE OF
PRODUCTION

 NATURAL MAGNET
 ARTIFICIAL PERMANENT
 ELECTROMAGNETS
NATURAL MAGNET
ARTIFICIAL PERMANENT
MAGNET
ELECTROMAGNETS
 MAGNETIC LAWS

REPULSION-ATTRACTION
GAUSS LAW

MAGNETIC POLES
REPULSION-ATTRACTION
REPULSION-ATTRACTION
 GAUSS LAW
 The force between two magnetic
fields
 directly proportional to the product of
their magnitudes
 Inversely proportional to the square of
distance between them
MAGNETIC POLES
 MAGNETIC CLASSIFICATIONS
OF MATERIALS

 PERMEABILITY
 SUSCEPTIBILITY

 RETENTIVITY
MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY
 MAGNETIC
SUSCEPTIBILITY
MAGNETIC RETENTIVITY
 Magnetic States of Matter
 Nonmagnetic – unaffected by a magnetic field ex.
Wood , glass
 Diamagnetic – weakly repelled from both magnetic
field poles ex. Water , plastic
 Paramagnetic – weakly attracted to both magnetic
field poles ex. Gadolinium
 Ferromagnetic – can be strongly magnetized ex. Iron,
nickel, cobalt

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 88
 FERROMAGNETIC
 Magnetic materials
 Strongly attracted by a magnet

 High permeability

 Greatly susceptible to induction

 Examples: iron, cobalt, nickel

 Alnico: useful magnets produced from

ferromagnetic material
 PARAMAGNETIC

Weak attraction (slightly attracted) to

magnetic fields
Low permeability

Examples: platinum, aluminum and MRI

contrast media
 DIAMAGNETIC

Weak repelled by all magnetic fields

Cannot be artificially magnetized

Examples: beryllium, bismuth, lead and

water
 NONMAGNETIC

Not affected by magnetic field

Cannot be magnetized

Examples: wood, glass, rubber and plastic

ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 94
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
 The production of a current in a conductor
by a changing magnetic field near the
conductor
 Faraday and Oersted Experiments

 The basis of transformer operation

 Electromagnetism
 Electromagnetic induction – induction of
electric current in a changing magnetic
field
 Hans Oersted – demonstrated that

electric current induces magnetic field

 Michael Faraday – demonstrated that a

moving magnet can induse electric

current

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 96
HANS OERSTED
OERSTED EXPERIMENT
MICHAEL FARADAY
FARADAY EXPERIMENT
 FIRST LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 Faraday’s Law: The first law of
electromagnetic induction
The size of induced current depends on:

 Strength of magnetic field

 Velocity of the field as it cuts through the
conductor
 Angle of the conductor to the magnetic field
 Number of turns of the conductor

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 102
 STRENGTH OF THE MAGNETIC
FIELD
 Directly proportional to the
magnitude of the induced current
 Increased MF Strength: increases

the magnitude of the induced current

 Decreased MF Strength:
decreases the magnitude of the
induced current
 VELOCITY OF MAGNETIC FIELD

 Directly proportional to the

magnitude of the induced current
 Increased speed: increases the

magnitude of the induced current

 Decreased speed: decreases the

magnitude of the induced current

 ANGLE OF THE CONDUCTOR

 MF 90o to the Conductor:

increases the magnitude of the
induced current
 Rationale: the conductor is crossing
through the maximum number of field lines
possible per second
 NUMBER OF TURNS

 Directly proportional to the

magnitude of the induced current
 More Turns: increases the
magnitude of the induced current
 Less Turns: decreases the
magnitude of the induced current
THREE WAYS TO INDUCED ELECTRIC
CURRENT IN THE CONDUCTOR
 Move the Conductor
 Through a stationary unchanging strength
MF
 Move Magnetic Lines of Force:
 Through a stationary conductor with an
unchanging strength MF
 Vary the MF Strength: causes
relative motion to induced current
HEINRICH LENZ
 SECOND LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
TWO TYPES OF INDUCTION

 SELF INDUCTION
 MUTUAL INDUCTION
 SELF INDUCTION
 The production of current within a
conductive coil opposing the magnetic
field that induced it
 Examples:

 Autotransformer
 Choke coil/rheostat
 MUTUAL INDUCTION
 The production of a current in a
neighboring circuit
 Occurs when two coils are placed in

proximity and a varying current is applied

to the first coil induces a similar flow in the
second coil
 Examples:

 HVT
 Filament transformer
MUTUAL INDUCTION
 Electromechanical Devices
 Electric motor – converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy (Oersted
Law)
 Electric generator – converts

mechanical energy to electrical energy

(Faraday’s Law)
 Transformer – changes the intensity of

alternating voltage and current

Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 116
ELECTRIC MOTOR
ELECTRIC MOTOR
ELECTRIC GENERATOR
INDUCTION MOTOR
ROTOR
STATOR
TRANSFORMER
TWO COILS IN A
TRANSFORMER
 STEP UP
TRANSFORMER
 STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER

FILAMENT TRANSFORMER
PRIMARY SECONDARY
SIDE SIDE

More turns Less turns

(thin copper) (thick copper)
High voltage Low voltage
(150 V) (12 V)
Low current High current
(0.5-1.0 A) (5-8 A)
 TRANSFORMER LAW
 Voltage is directly proportional to the
number of turns
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 There are 125 turns on the
primary side of a transformer
and 90,000 turns on the
secondary side. If 110 V AC is
supplied to the primary winding,
what is the voltage induced in
the secondary winding?
 TRANSFORMER
EFFECIENCY

 The ability of the transformer to

avoid power loss
 Usually above 95%

 Lost Power: given off as heat

 FACTORS THAT CAUSES
TRANSFORMER LOSSES

 COPPER LOSS (I2R LOSS)

 HYSTERESIS LOSS

 EDDY CURRENT LOSS

 COPPER LOSS
 Caused by the inherent resistance
to current flow that is found in all
conductors
 Minimized By:

 Low resistance wire (large diameter

wire)
 High voltage and low amperage
 HYSTERESIS LOSS

 Lagging loss
 An additional resistance caused by

alternate reversal of the magnetic field

caused by alternating current
 Minimized By: using a silicon iron
 EDDY CURRENT LOSS
 A current that opposes the magnetic
field that induced it, creating a loss of
transformer efficiency
 Produced in any conducting material

subjected to changing magnetic fields

 Minimized By:

 Closed-core transformer
 Laminating the transformer
• Reduces the strength of eddy current
 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
CORE CONFIGURATION

AIR CORE TRANSFORMER

OPEN-CORE TRANSFORMER

CLOSED-CORE TRANSFORMER

SHELL-TYPE TRANSFORMER
AIR CORE TRANSFORMER
OPEN-CORE TRANSFORMER
CLOSED-CORE
TRANSFORMER
 SHELL-TYPE
TRANSFORMER
 THREE IMPORTANT TRANSFORMER IN
THE X-RAY CIRCUIT

AUTOTRANSFORMER
HIGH VOLTAGE STEP-UP

TRANSFORMER
FILAMENT STEP-DOWN

TRANSFORMER
 AUTOTRANSFORMER
 A variable transformer
 Consists of one winding and one core
 Small step up or step down
 Not suitable for use in HVT in x-ray machines
 Suitable for controlling the kVp
 Location: operating console
 AUTOTRANSFORMER LAW
 Same as transformer law
 Voltage is directly proportional to number of turns
 SAMPLE QUESTION
 An autotransformer connected to a
440 V supply contains 500 turns, all
of which are enclosed by a primary
connections. If 2500 turns are
enclosed by secondary connection,
what voltage is supplied to the
high-voltage generator?
 HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER

 A transformer used to raise the

incoming-line voltage to the kilovoltage
range necessary for x-ray production
 A step up transformer
 FILAMENT TRANSFORMER
 A step down transformer
 A transformer used to step down the

voltage to approximately 12 V
 Provides current to heat the filament

 Secondary Windings: heavily

insulated from the primary windings
 CAPACITORS
 A device capable of accumulating and
storing electric charge
 Must be charged to be operable

 Capacitance: the ability of a body to

store an electric charge

 Farad (f): the unit of capacitance

 Application: mobile x-ray units

 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
 Purpose: required to ensure that the
electrons flow from x-ray tube cathode
to anode only
 Rectifiers: one way electrical devices

 Accomplished with diodes

 DIODE
 Vacuum tube with two electrodes
 Allows electron to flow in only one direction
 Valve Tube (Vacuum Tube Rectifier):
 Earlier diode rectifier
 No longer used
 Solid-state Semiconductor Diodes:
 Most commonly used
 Si, Se & Ge
 Semiconductive materials
 SOLID STATE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
 SOLID STATE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
VOLTAGE RIPPLE
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
 SINGLE-PHASE GENERATOR
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 THREE-PHASE GENERATOR
 THREE-PHASE 6 PULSE
 THREE-PHASE 12 PULSE
 HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR
 SINGLE-PHASE GENERATOR

 Permits the potential difference to drop

to zero with every change in the
direction of the current flow
 Symbol: 1ɸ

 100 voltage ripple

SELF- RECTIFICATION
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
THREE-PHASE GENERATOR
THREE-PHASE 6-PULSE
THREE-PHASE 12-PULSE
THREE-PHASE POWER
HIGH FREQUENCY
GENERATOR
HIGH FREQUENCY
GENERATOR
 FACTOR ADJUSTMENT
VOLTAGE
kVp mAs
RECTIFICATION
Single Phase 100 15

10
Three Phase 6-pulse
88 or 90 (2/3 of the original value)
(12% or 10 kVp
reduction) 7.5
Three Phase 12-pulse
(1/2 of the original value)

<7.5
84 or 88
(<1/2 of the original
High Frequency (16% or 12 kVp
value)
reduction
 GENERATOR POWER
RATING

 Determined by the greatest load the

generator is capable of sending the x-ray
tube
 Transformer & HV generator: identified

by their power rating

 Measured in kilowatts (kW)
 GENERATOR POWER
RATING

 HV generator: 30-50 kW
 Interventional: 150 kW

 Formula:

 Single phase = (0.7 x mA x kVp)/1000

 3-phase & HF = (mA x kVp)/1000
 HEAT UNITS
SINGLE-PHASE
HU = kVp x mA x s

THREE-PHASE 6 PULSE
HU = 1.35 x kVp x mA x s

THREE-PHASE 12 PULSE
HU = 1.41 x kVp x mA x s

HIGH FREQUENCY
HU = 1.45 x kVp x mA x s
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 Calculate the heat units generated
for the following exposures.
Single-phase, rectified unit: 250
mA, 0.7 seconds, and 200 kVp?
 In three-phase 6-pulse?

 In high frequency generator?

 Transformer Law(Voltage)
 Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
 Ns/Np = turns ratio

 Vs = Vp x turns ratio

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 Transformer Law (Current)
 Is/Ip = Np/Ns
 IsNs = IpNp

 Is = Ip / turns ratio

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 Types of Transformer
 Step up transformer – increases the input voltage ;
decreases current
 Vp < Vs
 Ns/Np > 1
 Is < Ip
 Step down transformer – decreases voltage ;
increases current
 Vp > Vs
 Ns/Np < 1
 Is > Ip

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Elsevier items and derived items © 2009 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 175
 Sample problems
1. The secondary side of a transformer has 300,000
turns; the primary side has 600 turns. What is the
turns ratio?
2. The turns ratio of a filament transformer is 0.125.
What is the filament current if the current through
the primary winding is 0.8 A ?
3. There are 125 turns on the primary side of a
transformer and 90,000 turns on the secondary side
. If 110 VAC is supplied to the primary side , what is
the voltage induced in the secondary winding?

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