The rope drives are widely used where a large amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another,
over a considerable distance.
It may be noted that the use of flat belts is limited for the
transmission of moderate power from one pulley to
another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 m apart.
If large amounts of power are to be transmitted, by the flat
belt, then it would result in excessive belt cross-section.
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The ropes drives use the following two types of ropes :
1. Fibre ropes, 2. Wire ropes.
The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys
are about 60 m apart, while the wire ropes are used
when the pulleys are up to 150 m apart.
Fibre Ropes
The ropes for transmitting power are usually made from fibrous
materials such as hemp, manila and cotton. Since the hemp and manila
fibres are rough, therefore the ropes made from these fibres are not very
flexible and possesses poor mechanical properties.
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The hemp ropes have less strength as compared to manila ropes.
When the hemp and manila ropes are bent over the sheave, there is
some sliding of the fibres, causing the rope to wear and chafe
internally. In order to minimise this defect, the rope fibres are
lubricated with a tar, tallow or graphite. The lubrication also makes
the rope moisture proof.
The hemp ropes are suitable only for hand operated hoisting
machinery and as tie ropes for lifting tackle, hooks etc.
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The cotton ropes are very soft and smooth. The lubrication of cotton
ropes is not necessary. But if it is done, it reduces the external wear
between the rope and the grooves of its sheaves. It may be noted that
the manila ropes are more durable and stronger than cotton ropes.
The cotton ropes are costlier than manila ropes.
Advantages of Fibre Rope Drives
1. They give smooth, steady and quiet service.
2. They are little affected by out door conditions.
3. The shafts may be out of strict alignment.
4. The power may be taken off in any direction and in fractional parts
of the whole amount.
5. They give high mechanical efficiency.
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When a large amount of power is to be transmitted
over long distances from one pulley to another
(i.e. when the pulleys are up to 150 m apart), then
wire ropes are used.
The wire ropes are widely used in elevators, mine
hoists, cranes, conveyors, hauling devices and
suspension bridges.
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The wire ropes run on grooved pulleys but they
rest on the bottom of the grooves and are not
wedged between the sides of the grooves.
The wire ropes are made from cold drawn wires in
order to have increase in strength and durability.
The various materials used for wire ropes in order
of increasing strength are wrought iron, cast steel,
extra strong cast steel, plough steel and alloy steel.
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For certain purposes, the wire ropes may also be
made of copper, bronze, aluminium alloys and
stainless steels.
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Advantages of Wire Ropes
The wire ropes have the following advantages as compared
to fibre ropes.
1. These are lighter in weight, 2. These offer silent operation,
3. These can withstand shock loads, 4. These are more reliable,
5. These are more durable, 6. They do not fail suddenly,
7. The efficiency is high, and 8. The cost is low.
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Construction of Wire Ropes
The wire ropes are made from various grades of steel wire having a
tensile strength ranging from 1200 to 2400 MPa as shown in the
following table :
Grade and tensile strength of wires. Table. 1
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The wires are first given special heat treatment and then cold drawn
in order to have high strength and durability of the rope.
The steel wire ropes are manufactured by special machines.
First of all, a number of wires such as 7, 19 or 37 are twisted into a
strand and then a number of strands, usually 6 or 8 are twisted about
a core or centre to form the rope as shown in Fig. 1
Cross-sections of wire rope.
Fig. 1
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The core may be made of hemp, jute, asbsestos or a wire of
softer steel.
The asbestos or soft wire core is used when ropes are subjected
to radiant heat such as cranes operating near furnaces.
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Classification of Wire Ropes
According to the direction of twist of the individual wires and that
of strands, relative to each other, the wire ropes may be classified
as follows :
1. Cross or regular lay ropes.
In these types of ropes, the direction of twist of wires in the
strands is opposite to the direction of twist of the stands, as
shown in Fig. 2 (a). Such type of ropes are most popular.
Fig. 2 (a).
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2. Parallel or lang lay ropes.
In these type of ropes, the direction of twist of the wires in the
strands is same as that of strands in the rope, as shown in Fig. 2 (b).
Fig. 2 (b).
3. Composite or reverse laid ropes.
In these types of ropes, the wires in the two adjacent strands are twisted
in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 2 (c).
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Fig. 2 (c).
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Designation of Wire Ropes
The wire ropes are designated by:
1-The number of strands and. 2-The number of wires in each strand
3-Wire diameter. 4- Type of construction .
For example, a wire rope having six strands and seven wires in each strand is
designated by 6 × 7 rope.
Standard designation of ropes and their applications. Table. 2
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Properties of Wire Ropes
The following tables show the properties of the various types of wire
ropes. In these properties, the diameter of the wire rope (d ) is in mm.
Steel wire ropes for haulage purposes in mines Table. 3.
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Steel wire suspension ropes for lifts, elevators and hoists Table. 4.
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Steel wire ropes used in oil wells and oil well drilling Table. 5.
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Steel wire ropes for general engineering purposes such as cranes,
excavators etc. Table. 6
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Diameter of Wire and Area of Wire Rope
The following table shows the diameter of wire (dw) and area of
wire rope (A) for different types of wire ropes : Table. 7
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Factor of Safety for Wire Ropes
The factor of safety for wire ropes based on the ultimate strength
are given in the following table. Table. 8
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Wire Rope Sheaves and Drums
The sheave diameter should be fairly large in order to reduce the
bending stresses in the ropes when they bend around the sheaves or
pulleys. The following table shows the sheave diameters for various
types of wire ropes :
Sheave diameters (D) for wire ropes. Table. 9
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However, if the space allows, then the large diameters should
be employed which give better and more economical service.
The sheave groove has a great influence on the life and
service of the rope.
If the groove is bigger than rope,
there will not be sufficient
support for the rope which may,
therefore, flatten from its
normal circular shape and
increase fatigue effects.
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On the other hand, if the groove is too small, then the rope
will be wedged into the groove and thus the normal rotation
is prevented.
The standard rim of a rope sheave is shown in Fig. (a) and a
standard grooved drum for wire ropes is shown in Fig. (b).
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For light and medium service, the sheaves are made of cast iron,
but for heavy crane service they are often made of steel castings.
The sheaves are usually mounted on fixed axles on antifriction
bearings or bronze bushings.
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Wire Rope Fasteners
The various types of rope fasteners are shown in Fig.
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The efficiencies of various types of fasteners are given in the following
table. Table. 10
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Stresses in Wire Ropes
1. Direct stress due to axial load lifted and weight of the rope
Let W = Load lifted,
w = Weight of the rope, and
A = Net cross-sectional area of the rope.
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2. Bending stress when the rope winds round the sheave or drum.
When a wire rope is wound over the sheave, then the bending
stresses are induced in the wire which is tensile at the top and
compressive at the lower side of the wire.
The bending stress induced depends upon many factors such as
construction of rope, size of wire, type of centre and the amount of
restraint in the grooves.
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equivalent bending load on the rope,
Where :
Er = Modulus of elasticity of the wire rope,
dw = Diameter of the wire,
D = Diameter of the sheave or drum, and
A = Net cross-sectional area of the rope.
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It may be noted that Er is not the modulus of elasticity for the wire
material, but it is of the entire rope. The value of Er may be taken
as 77 kN/mm2 for wrought iron ropes and 84 kN/mm2 for steel
ropes. It has been found experimentally that Er = 3/8 E, where E
is the modulus of elasticity of the wire material.
If 𝜎b is the bending stress in each wire, then the load on the whole
rope due to bending may be obtained from the following relation,
where n is the total number of wires in the rope section.
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3. Stresses during starting and stopping.
(Stresses due to acceleration or retardation of moving masses)
During starting and stopping, the rope and the supported load
are to be accelerated. This induces additional load in the rope
which is given by
...(W and w are in newton)
and the corresponding stress,
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Where a = Acceleration of the rope and load, and
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
If the time (t) necessary to attain a speed (v) is known, then the value
of ‘a’ is given by
a = v / 60 t
The general case of starting is when the rope has a slack (h) which
must be overcome before the rope is taut and starts to exert a pull on
the load. This induces an impact load on the rope.
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and velocity of the rope (vr) at the instant when the rope is taut,
Where
a = Acceleration of the rope and load,
h = Slackness in the rope, and
l = Length of the rope.
When there is no slackness in the rope, then h = 0 and vr = 0,
therefore Impact load during starting,
Wst = 2 (W + w)
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and the corresponding stress,
4. Stress due to change in speed.
The additional stress due to change in speed may be obtained
in the similar way as discussed above in which the acceleration is
given by
a = (v2 – v1) / t
where (v2 – v1 ) is the change in speed in m/s and t is the time in
seconds.
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5. Effective stress.
The sum of the direct stress (𝜎d) and the bending stress (𝜎b) is called
the effective stress in the rope during normal working.
Mathematically,
Effective stress in the rope during normal working
= σ d + σb
Effective stress in the rope during starting
= σst + σb
and effective stress in the rope during acceleration of the load
= σ d + σb + σa
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While designing a wire rope, the sum of these stresses should
be less than the ultimate strength divided by the factor of safety.
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Procedure for Designing a Wire Rope
[Link] of all, select a suitable type of rope from Tables.3,4,5 and.6 for
the given application.
2. Find the design load by assuming a factor of safety 2 to 2.5 times
the factor of safety given in Table 8.
3. Find the diameter of wire rope (d) by equating the tensile strength
of the rope selected to the design load.
4. Find the diameter of the wire (dw) and area of the rope (A) from
Table 7.
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5. Find the various stresses (or loads) in the rope as discussed in Art.
Stresses in Wire Ropes
6. Find the effective stresses (or loads) during normal working,
during starting and during acceleration of the load.
7. Now find the actual factor of safety and compare with the factor
of safety given in Table 8. If the actual factor of safety is within
permissible limits, then the design is safe.
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Example 1. Select a wire rope for a vertical mine hoist to lift a load of 55
kN from a depth 300 metres. A rope speed of 500 metres / min is to be
attained in 10 seconds.
Solution.
Given : W = 55 kN = 55 000 N ; Depth = 300 m ; v = 500 m/min
1. From Table 3, we find that the wire ropes for haulage purposes in mines
are of two types, i.e. 6 × 7 and 6 × 19. Let us take a rope of type 6 × 19.
2. From Table 8, we find that the factor of safety for mine hoists from 300 to
600 m depth is 7. Since the design load is calculated by taking a factor of
safety 2 to 2.5 times the factor of safety given in Table 8, therefore let us
take the factor of safety as 15.
∴ Design load for the wire rope
= 15 × 55 = 825 kN = 825 000 N
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3. From Table 3, we find that the tensile strength of 6 × 19 rope made of
wire with tensile strength of 1800 MPa is 595 d2 (in newton), where d is
the diameter of rope in mm. Equating this tensile strength to the design
load, we get
595 d2 = 825 000
∴ d2 = 825 000 / 595 = 1386.5 or d = 37.2 say 38 mm
4. From Table 7, we find that for a 6 × 19 rope, Diameter of wire,
dw = 0.063 d = 0.063 × 38 = 2.4 mm
and area of rope,
A = 0.38 d2 = 0.38 (38)2 = 550 mm2
5. Now let us find out the various loads in the rope as discussed below :
(a) From Table 3, we find that weight of the rope,
w = 0.0363 d2 = 0.0363 (38)2 = 52.4 N/m
= 52.4 × 300 = 15 720 N ...(∵ Depth = 300 m)
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(b) From Table 9, we find that diameter of the sheave (D) may be taken as 60
to 100 times the diameter of rope ( d ). Let us take
D = 100 d = 100 × 38 = 3800 mm
∴ Bending stress,
and the equivalent bending load on the rope,
Wb = σb × A = 53 × 550 = 29 150 N
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(c) We know that the acceleration of the rope and load,
a = v / 60t = 500 / 60 × 10 = 0.83 m / s2
∴ Additional load due to acceleration,
(d) We know that the impact load during starting (when there is no slackness in
the rope),
Wst = 2 (W + w) = 2(55 000 + 15 720) = 141 440 N
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6. We know that the effective load on the rope during normal working (i.e. during
uniform lifting or lowering of the load)
= W + w + Wb = 55 000 + 15 720 + 29150 = 99 870 N
∴ Actual factor of safety during normal working
Effective load on the rope during starting
= Wst + Wb = 141 440 + 29 150 = 170 590 N
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∴ Actual factor of safety during starting
Effective load on the rope during acceleration of the load (i.e. during
first 10 seconds after starting)
= W + w + Wb + Wa
= 55 000 + 15 7 20 + 29 150 + 5983 = 105 853 N
∴ Actual factor of safety during acceleration of the load
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Since the actual factor of safety as calculated above are safe, therefore a
wire rope of diameter 38 mm and 6 × 19 type is satisfactory.
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Example 2.
An extra flexible 8 × 19 plough steel wire rope of 38 mm diameter is
used with a 2m diameter hoist drum to lift 50 kN of load. Find the
factor of safety (ratio of the breaking load to the maximum working
load) under the following conditions of operation : The wire rope is
required to lift from a depth of 900 metres. The maximum speed is
3 m / s and the acceleration is 1.5 m / s2, when starting under no slack
condition. The diameter of the wire may be taken as 0.05 d, where d is
the diameter of wire rope. The breaking strength of plough steel is
1880 N/mm2 and modulus of elasticity of the entire rope is 84 × 103
N/mm2. The weight of the rope is 53 N/m length.
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Example 3:
A workshop crane is lifting a load of 25 kN through a wire rope and
a hook. The weight of the hook etc. is 15 kN. The rope drum
diameter may be taken as 30 times the diameter of the rope. The load
is to be lifted with an acceleration of 1 m/s2. Calculate the diameter
of the wire rope. Take a factor of safety of 6 and Young’s modulus for
the wire rope 80 kN/mm2. The ultimate stress may be taken as 1800
MPa. The cross-sectional area of the wire rope may be taken as 0.38
times the square of the wire rope diameter.
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Example 4:
Fig.(…) shows a hoist used for operation of gates to
regulate flow from reservoirs for flood control. It would be
noted that the arrangement proposed enables a wide gate
being suspended at the two ends, with a common driving
unit at the centre. There are two drums at the two
suspension points of the gates and gate is connected to the
drum through ropes. A pair of ropes is provided on each
side. The rope is fixed to the drum at its centre and the two
ends are fixed to equalizer to equalize the tension in the
ropes. The drums are coupled to the gear boxes. The drum
shaft may be kept either fixed or rotating. It kept fixed,
bronze bushings have to be used at the two ends of the
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drum so that it rotates freely on the shaft. If kept rotating,
the drum has to be keyed to the shaft, which is supported
on roller or ball bearings at the two ends. Gate position
indicator and limit switches to limit the lift of gate and
provide automatic stopping of the hoist mechanism when
gate is fully closed/open are also to be provided.
Design the complete hoist system for the following data:
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Gate weight = 20,000 Kg.
Gate size = 9.9 m x 6.0 m
Wheel diameter = 500 mm
Wheel pin or axle diameter = 100 mm
Total travel of gate = 10 m
Coefficient of friction for seal 𝜇 = 1.0
Centre to centre of seal = 10 m
Width of seal w= 20 mm
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Design Include:
1-Capacity of Hoist.
2-Selection of Wire rope.
3-Design of Drum.
4-Selection of Motor.
5-Reducer Unit.
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