Python: An Introduction

Shubin Liu, Ph.D.

Research Computing Center
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
 Agenda

 Introduction
 Running Python
 Python Programming
• Data types
• Control flows
• Classes, functions, modules
 Hands-on Exercises
The PPT/WORD format of this presentation is available here:
[Link]
/afs/isis/depts/its/public_html/divisions/rc/training/scientific/short_courses/
[Link] 2
 Course Goals

 To understand the basic structure and

syntax of Python programming language
 To learn how to run Python scripts on our
research computing facility, the Emerald
Linux cluster
 To write your own simple Python scripts.
 To serve as the starting point for more
advanced training on Python coding

[Link] 3
 What is python?

 Object oriented language

 Interpreted language
 Supports dynamic data type
 Independent from platforms
 Focused on development time
 Simple and easy grammar
 High-level internal object data types
 Automatic memory management
 It’s free (open source)!

[Link] 4
 Timeline

 Python born, name picked - Dec 1989

• By Guido van Rossum, now at GOOGLE
 First public release (USENET) - Feb 1991
 [Link] website - 1996 or 1997
 2.0 released - 2000
 Python Software Foundation - 2001
 …
 2.4 released - 2004
 2.5 released – 2006
 Current version: 2.6.x

[Link] 5
 Language properties

 Everything is an object
 Modules, classes, functions
 Exception handling
 Dynamic typing, polymorphism
 Static scoping
 Operator overloading
 Indentation for block structure
[Link] 6
 High-level data types

 Numbers: int, long, float, complex

 Strings: immutable
 Lists and dictionaries: containers
 Other types for e.g. binary data, regular
expressions, introspection
 Extension modules can define new “built-
in” data types

[Link] 7
 Why learn python?

 Fun-to-use "Scripting language"

 Object-oriented
• Highly educational
 Very easy to learn
 Powerful, scalable, easy to maintain
• high productivity
• Lots of libraries
 Glue language
• Interactive front-end for FORTRAN/C/C++ code

[Link] 8
 Why learn python? (cont.)

 Reduce development time

 Reduce code length
 Easy to learn and use as developers
 Easy to understand codes
 Easy to do team projects
 Easy to extend to other languages

[Link] 9
 Where to use python?

 System management (i.e., scripting)

 Graphic User Interface (GUI)
 Internet programming
 Database (DB) programming
 Text data processing
 Distributed processing
 Numerical operations
 Graphics
 And so on…
[Link] 10
 Python vs. Perl

• Easier to learn
 important for occasional users
• More readable code
 improved code maintenance
• Fewer “magical” side effects
• More “safety” guarantees
• Better Java integration
• Less Unix bias

[Link] 11
 Python vs. Java

• Code 5-10 times more concise

• Dynamic typing
• Much quicker development
 no compilation phase
 less typing
• Yes, it runs slower
 but development is so much faster!
• Similar (but more so) for C/C++
 Use Python with Java: JPython!
[Link] 12
 Agenda

 Introduction
 Running Python
 Python Programming
• Data types
• Control flows
• Classes, functions, modules
 Hands-on Exercises
The PPT/WORD format of this presentation is available here:
[Link]
/afs/isis/depts/its/public_html/divisions/rc/training/scientific/short_courses/
[Link] 13
 Running Python Interactively
 Start python by typing "python"
• /afs/isis/pkg/isis/bin/python
 ^D (control-D) exits
 % python
 >>> ^D
%
 Comments start with ‘#’
 >>> 2+2 #Comment on the same line as text
4
 >>> 7/3 #Numbers are integers by default
2
 >>> x = y = z = 0 #Multiple assigns at once
 >>> z
0
[Link] 14
 Running Python Programs
 In general
 % python ./[Link]
 Can also create executable scripts
• Compose the code in an editor like vi/emacs
 % vi ./[Link] # Python scripts with the suffix .py.
• Then you can just type the script name to execute
 % python ./[Link]
 The first line of the program tells the OS how to execute it:
 #! /afs/isis/pkg/isis/bin/python
• Make the file executable:
 % chmod +x ./[Link]
• Then you can just type the script name to execute
 % ./[Link]

[Link] 15
 Running Python Programs
Interactively
Suppose the file [Link] contains the following lines:
print 'Hello world'
x = [0,1,2]
Let's run this script in each of the ways described on the last slide:
 python -i [Link]
Hello world
>>> x
[0,1,2]

 $ python
>>> execfile('[Link]')
>>> x
[0,1,2]

[Link] 16
 Running Python Programs
Interactively
Suppose the file [Link] contains the following lines:
print 'Hello world'
x = [0,1,2]
Let's run this script in each of the ways described on the last slide:
 python
>>> import script # DO NOT add the .py suffix. Script is a module here
>>> x
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
NameError: name 'x' is not defined
>>> script.x # to make use of x, we need to let Python know which
#module it came from, i.e. give Python its context
[0,1,2]

[Link] 17
 Running Python Programs
Interactively
# Pretend that [Link] contains multiple stored quantities. To promote
x(and only x) to the top level context, type the following:
 $ python
>>> from script import x
Hello world
>>> x
[0,1,2]
>>>
# To promote all quantities in [Link] to the top level context, type
from script import * into the interpreter. Of course, if that's what
you want, you might as well type python -i [Link] into the
terminal.
>>> from script import *

[Link] 18
 File naming conventions

 python files usually end with the suffix .py

 but executable files usually don’t have the .py
extension

 modules (later) should always have the .py

extension

[Link] 19
 Comments

 Start with # and go to end of line

 What about C, C++ style comments?

• NOT supported!

[Link] 20
 Agenda

 Introduction
 Running Python
 Python Programming
• Data types
• Control flows
• Classes, functions, modules
 Hands-on Exercises
The PPT/WORD format of this presentation is available here:
[Link]
/afs/isis/depts/its/public_html/divisions/rc/training/scientific/short_courses/
[Link] 21
 Python Syntax

 Much of it is similar to C syntax

 Exceptions:
• missing operators: ++, --
• no curly brackets,{}, for blocks; uses
whitespace
• different keywords
• lots of extra features
• no type declarations!

[Link] 22
 Simple data types

 Numbers
• Integer, floating-point, complex!

 Strings
• characters are strings of length 1

 Booleans are False or True

[Link] 23
 Numbers

 The usual notations and operators

 12, 3.14, 0xFF, 0377, (-1+2)*3/4**5, abs(x), 0<x<=5
 C-style shifting & masking
 1<<16, x&0xff, x|1, ~x, x^y
 Integer division truncates :-(
 1/2 -> 0 # float(1)/2 -> 0.5

 Long (arbitrary precision), complex

 2L**100 -> 1267650600228229401496703205376L
 1j**2 -> (-1+0j)

[Link] 24
 Strings and formatting

i = 10

d = 3.1415926

s = "I am a string!"

print "%d\t%f\t%s" % (i, d, s)

print “newline\n"

print "no newline"

[Link] 25
 Variables

 No need to declare
 Need to assign (initialize)
 use of uninitialized variable raises exception
 Not typed
if friendly: greeting = "hello world"
else: greeting = 12**2
print greeting

 Everything is a variable:
 functions, modules, classes

[Link] 26
 Reference semantics

 Assignment manipulates references

 x = y does not make a copy of y
 x = y makes x reference the object y references
 Very useful; but beware!
 Example:
>>> a = [1, 2, 3]; b = a
>>> [Link](4); print b
[1, 2, 3, 4]

[Link] 27
 Simple data types:
operators

 + - * / % (like C)
 += -= etc. (no ++ or --)
 Assignment using =
• but semantics are different!
a = 1
a = "foo" # OK
 Can also use + to concatenate strings

[Link] 28
 Strings

 "hello"+"world" "helloworld" # concatenation

 "hello"*3 "hellohellohello" # repetition
 "hello"[0] "h" # indexing
 "hello"[-1] "o" # (from end)
 "hello"[1:4] "ell" # slicing
 len("hello") 5 # size
 "hello" < "jello" 1 # comparison
 "e" in "hello" 1 # search
 New line: "escapes: \n "
 Line continuation: triple quotes ’’’
 Quotes: ‘single quotes’, "raw strings"

[Link] 29
 Simple Data Types

• Triple quotes useful for multi-line strings

>>> s = """ a long
... string with "quotes" or
anything else"""
>>> s
' a long\012string with "quotes"
or anything else'
>>> len(s)
45

[Link] 30
 Methods in string

 upper()  strip(), lstrip(), rstrip()

 lower()  replace(a, b)
 capitalize()  expandtabs()
 count(s)  split()
 find(s)  join()
 rfind(s)  center(), ljust(), rjust()
 index(s)

[Link] 31
 Compound Data Type: List

 List:
• A container that holds a number of other objects,
in a given order
• Defined in square brackets
a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
print a[1] # number 2
some_list = []
some_list.append("foo")
some_list.append(12)
print len(some_list) # 2

[Link] 32
 List

 a = [99, "bottles of beer", ["on", "the", "wall"]]

 Flexible arrays, not Lisp-like linked lists
 Same operators as for strings
 a+b, a*3, a[0], a[-1], a[1:], len(a)
 Item and slice assignment
 a[0] = 98
 a[1:2] = ["bottles", "of", "beer"]
-> [98, "bottles", "of", "beer", ["on", "the", "wall"]]
 del a[-1] # -> [98, "bottles", "of", "beer"]

[Link] 33
 More list operations

>>> a = range(5) # [0,1,2,3,4]

>>> [Link](5) # [0,1,2,3,4,5]
>>> [Link]() # [0,1,2,3,4]
5
>>> [Link](0, 5.5) # [5.5,0,1,2,3,4]
>>> [Link](0) # [0,1,2,3,4]
5.5
>>> [Link]() # [4,3,2,1,0]
>>> [Link]() # [0,1,2,3,4]

[Link] 34
 Operations in List

 append  Indexing e.g., L[i]

 insert  Slicing e.g., L[1:5]
 index  Concatenation e.g., L + L
 count  Repetition e.g., L * 5
 sort  Membership test e.g., ‘a’ in L
 reverse
 Length e.g., len(L)
 remove
 pop
 extend

[Link] 35
 Nested List

 List in a list
 E.g.,
• >>> s = [1,2,3]
• >>> t = [‘begin’, s, ‘end’]
• >>> t
• [‘begin’, [1, 2, 3], ‘end’]
• >>> t[1][1]
•2

[Link] 36
 Dictionaries
 Dictionaries: curly brackets
• What is dictionary?
 Refer value through key; “associative arrays”
• Like an array indexed by a string
• An unordered set of key: value pairs
• Values of any type; keys of almost any type
 {"name":"Guido", "age":43, ("hello","world"):1,
42:"yes", "flag": ["red","white","blue"]}
d = { "foo" : 1, "bar" : 2 }
print d["bar"] # 2
some_dict = {}
some_dict["foo"] = "yow!"
print some_dict.keys() # ["foo"]
[Link] 37
 Methods in Dictionary

 keys()
 values()
 items()
 has_key(key)
 clear()
 copy()
 get(key[,x])
 setdefault(key[,x])
 update(D)
 popitem()

[Link] 38
 Dictionary details

 Keys must be immutable:

• numbers, strings, tuples of immutables
 these cannot be changed after creation
• reason is hashing (fast lookup technique)
• not lists or other dictionaries
 these types of objects can be changed "in place"
• no restrictions on values
 Keys will be listed in arbitrary order
• again, because of hashing

[Link] 39
 Tuples
 What is a tuple?
• A tuple is an ordered collection which cannot
be modified once it has been created.
• In other words, it's a special array, a read-only array.
 How to make a tuple? In round brackets
• E.g.,
>>> t = ()
>>> t = (1, 2, 3)
>>> t = (1, )
>>> t = 1,
>>> a = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
>>> print a[1] # 2

[Link] 40
 Operations in Tuple

 Indexing e.g., T[i]

 Slicing e.g., T[1:5]
 Concatenation e.g., T + T
 Repetition e.g., T * 5
 Membership test e.g., ‘a’ in T
 Length e.g., len(T)

[Link] 41
 List vs. Tuple

 What are common characteristics?

• Both store arbitrary data objects
• Both are of sequence data type
 What are differences?
• Tuple doesn’t allow modification
• Tuple doesn’t have methods
• Tuple supports format strings
• Tuple supports variable length parameter in
function call.
• Tuples slightly faster
[Link] 42
 Data Type Wrap Up

 Integers: 2323, 3234L

 Floating Point: 32.3, 3.1E2
 Complex: 3 + 2j, 1j
 Lists: l = [ 1,2,3]
 Tuples: t = (1,2,3)
 Dictionaries: d = {‘hello’ : ‘there’, 2 : 15}

[Link] 43
 Data Type Wrap Up

 Lists, Tuples, and Dictionaries can store

any type (including other lists, tuples,
and dictionaries!)
 Only lists and dictionaries are mutable
 All variables are references

[Link] 44
 Input

 The raw_input(string) method returns a

line of user input as a string
 The parameter is used as a prompt
 The string can be converted by using
the conversion methods int(string),
float(string), etc.

[Link] 45
 File I/O

f = file("foo", "r")
line = [Link]()
print line,
[Link]()
# Can use [Link] as input;
# Can use [Link] as output.

[Link] 46
 Files: Input

input = open(‘data’, ‘r’) Open the file for input

S = [Link]() Read whole file into

one String
S = [Link](N) Reads N bytes
(N >= 1)
L = [Link]() Returns a list of line
strings

[Link] 47
 Files: Output

output = open(‘data’, ‘w’) Open the file for

writing
[Link](S) Writes the string S to
file
[Link](L) Writes each of the
strings in list L to file
[Link]() Manual close

[Link] 48
 open() and file()

 These are identical:

f = open(filename, "r")
f = file(filename, "r")
 The open() version is older
 The file() version is the recommended
way to open a file now
• uses object constructor syntax (next lecture)

[Link] 49
 OOP Terminology

 class -- a template for building objects

 instance -- an object created from the
template (an instance of the class)

 method -- a function that is part of the

object and acts on instances directly

 constructor -- special "method" that creates

new instances
[Link] 50
 Objects
 Objects:
• What is an object?
 data structure, and
 functions (methods) that operate on it
class thingy:
# Definition of the class here, next slide
t = thingy()
[Link]()
print [Link]
 Built-in data structures (lists, dictionaries) are also objects
• though internal representation is different

[Link] 51
 Defining a class

class Thingy:

"""This class stores an arbitrary object."""

def __init__(self, value):

constructor
"""Initialize a Thingy."""

[Link] = value
method
def showme(self):

"""Print this object to stdout."""

print "value = %s" % [Link]

[Link] 52
 Using a class (1)

t = Thingy(10) # calls __init__ method

[Link]() # prints "value = 10"

 t is an instance of class Thingy

 showme is a method of class Thingy
 __init__ is the constructor method of class Thingy
• when a Thingy is created, the __init__ method is called
 Methods starting and ending with __ are "special" methods

[Link] 53
 Using a class (2)

print [Link] # prints "10"

• value is a field of class Thingy

[Link] = 20 # change the field value

print [Link] # prints "20"

[Link] 54
 "Special" methods

 All start and end with __ (two underscores)

 Most are used to emulate functionality of
built-in types in user-defined classes

 e.g. operator overloading

• __add__, __sub__, __mult__, ...

• see python docs for more information

[Link] 55
 Control flow (1)
 if, if/else, if/elif/else
if a == 0:
print "zero!"
elif a < 0:
print "negative!"
else:
print "positive!"
 Notes:
• blocks delimited by indentation!

• colon (:) used at end of lines containing control flow keywords

[Link] 56
 Control flow (3)

 while loops

a = 10
while a > 0:
print a
a -= 1
[Link] 57
 Control flow (4)

 for loops

for a in range(10):
print a

 really a "foreach" loop

[Link] 58
 Control flow (5)

 Common for loop idiom:

a = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9]
for i in range(len(a)):
print a[i]

[Link] 59
 Control flow (6)

 Common while loop idiom:

f = open(filename, "r")
while True:
line = [Link]()
if not line:
break
# do something with line

[Link] 60
 Control flow (7): odds &
ends

 continue statement like in C

 pass keyword:
if a == 0:
pass # do nothing
else:
# whatever
[Link] 61
 Defining functions

def foo(x):
y = 10 * x + 2
return y
 All variables are local unless
specified as global
 Arguments passed by value

[Link] 62
 Executing functions

def foo(x):
y = 10 * x + 2
return y

print foo(10) # 102

[Link] 63
 Why use modules?

 Code reuse
• Routines can be called multiple times within a
program
• Routines can be used from multiple programs
 Namespace partitioning
• Group data together with functions used for that
data
 Implementing shared services or data
• Can provide global data structure that is accessed by
multiple subprograms

[Link] 64
 Modules
 Modules are functions and variables defined in separate files
 Items are imported using from or import
 from module import function
 function()

 import module
 [Link]()
 Modules are namespaces
• Can be used to organize variable names, i.e.
 [Link] = [Link] - [Link]

[Link] 65
 Modules

 Access other code by importing modules

import math

print [Link](2.0)

 or:
from math import sqrt

print sqrt(2.0)

[Link] 66
 Modules

 or:
from math import *

print sqrt(2.0)

 Can import multiple modules on one line:

import sys, string, math

 Only one "from x import y" per line

[Link] 67
 Example: NumPy Modules
 [Link]
 NumPy has many of the features of Matlab, in a free, multiplatform
program. It also allows you to do intensive computing operations in a simple
way
 Numeric Module: Array Constructors
• ones, zeros, identity
• arrayrange
 LinearAlgebra Module: Solvers
• Singular Value Decomposition
• Eigenvalue, Eigenvector
• Inverse
• Determinant
• Linear System Solver

[Link] 68
 Arrays and Constructors
 >>> a = ones((3,3),float)
 >>> print a
 [[1., 1., 1.],
 [1., 1., 1.],
 [1., 1., 1.]]
 >>> b = zeros((3,3),float)
 >>> b = b + 2.*identity(3) #"+" is overloaded
 >>> c = a + b
 >>> print c
 [[3., 1., 1.],
 [1., 3., 1.],
 [1., 1., 3.]]

[Link] 69
 Overloaded operators
 >>> b = 2.*ones((2,2),float) #overloaded
 >>> print b
 [[2.,2.],
 [2.,2.]]
 >>> b = b+1 # Addition of a scalar is
 >>> print b # element-by-element
 [[3.,3.],
 [3.,3.]]
 >>> c = 2.*b # Multiplication by a scalar is
 >>> print c # element-by-element
 [[6.,6.],
 [6.,6.]]

[Link] 70
 Array functions
 >>> from LinearAlgebra import *
 >>> a = zeros((3,3),float) + 2.*identity(3)
 >>> print inverse(a)
 [[0.5, 0., 0.],
 [0., 0.5, 0.],
 [0., 0., 0.5]]
 >>> print determinant(inverse(a))
 0.125
 >>> print diagonal(a)
 [0.5,0.5,0.5]
 >>> print diagonal(a,1)
 [0.,0.]
• transpose(a), argsort(), dot()

[Link] 71
 Eigenvalues

 >>> from LinearAlgebra import *

 >>> val = eigenvalues(c)
 >>> val, vec = eigenvectors(c)
 >>> print val
 [1., 4., 1.]
 >>> print vec
 [[0.816, -0.408, -0.408],
 [0.575, 0.577, 0.577],
 [-0.324, -0.487, 0.811]]
• also solve_linear_equations, singular_value_decomposition,
etc.

[Link] 72
 Least Squares Fitting
 Part of Hinsen's Scientific Python module
 >>> from LeastSquares import *
 >>> def func(params,x): # y=ax^2+bx+c
 return params[0]*x*x + params[1]*x +
 params[2]
 >>> data = []
 >>> for i in range(10):
 [Link]((i,i*i))
 >>> guess = (3,2,1)
 >>> fit_params, fit_error =
 leastSquaresFit(func,guess,data)
 >>> print fit_params
 [1.00,0.000,0.00]

[Link] 73
 FFT
 >>> from FFT import *
 >>> data = array((1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0))
 >>> print fft(data).real
 [4., 0., 0., 0., 4., 0., 0., 0.]]

 Also note that the FFTW package ("fastest Fourier transform in the
West") has a python wrapper. See notes at the end
 Python Standard Libraries/Modules:
• [Link]
• [Link]
python_packages.html
• [Link]
[Link] 74
 Command-line arguments
import sys
print len([Link]) # NOT argc
# Print all arguments:
print [Link]
# Print all arguments but the program
# or module name:
print [Link][1:] # "array slice"

[Link] 75
 Catching Exceptions
#python code [Link]
x = 0
try:
    print 1/x
except ZeroDivisionError, message:
    print "Can’t divide by zero:"
    print message
>>>python [Link]
Can't divide by zero:
integer division or modulo by zero

[Link] 76
 Try-Finally: Cleanup

f = open(file)
try:
process_file(f)
finally:
[Link]() # always executed
print "OK" # executed on success only

[Link] 77
 Raising Exceptions

 raise IndexError
 raise IndexError("k out of range")
 raise IndexError, "k out of range”
 try:
something
except: # catch everything
print "Oops"
raise # reraise

[Link] 78
 Python: Pros & Cons
 Pros
• Free availability (like Perl, Python is open source).
• Stability (Python is in release 2.6 at this point and, as I noted earlier, is older
than Java).
• Very easy to learn and use
• Good support for objects, modules, and other reusability mechanisms.
• Easy integration with and extensibility using C and Java.
 Cons
• Smaller pool of Python developers compared to other languages, such as Java
• Lack of true multiprocessor support
• Absence of a commercial support point, even for an Open Source project
(though this situation is changing)
• Software performance slow, not suitable for high performance applications

[Link] 79
 References
• Python Homepage
• [Link]
• Python Tutorial
• [Link]
• Python Documentation
• [Link]
• Python Library References
 [Link]
• Python Add-on Packages:
 [Link]

[Link] 80
 Questions & Comments
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[Link]
 Hands-On Exercises
 26 codes at /netscr/training/Python
 Copy to your own /netscr/$USER
 Read, understand, and then run them
 Suggested order:
• hello, input, print, readwrite
• number, string_test, sort
• list, dictionary, tuple, function, class
• loop, fact, …
• calculator, guess, prime_number
• matrix, opt, leastsq

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[Link] /afs/isis/depts/its/public_html/divisions/rc/training/scientific/short_courses/ 82