BEE1133 : Circuit Analysis I
Chapter 4: First Order Circuits
First Order Circuits : Syllabus
4.1 Introduction to energy storage elements
4.2 The source-free RC circuit
4.3 The source-free RL circuit
4.4 Unit step function
4.5 Step response of an RC circuit
4.6 Step response of an RL circuit
First Order Circuits:Lesson Outcomes
• Understand the characteristics of capacitor
and inductor
• Differentiate the behaviour of first-order
circuit with dc circuit
• Demonstrate the behaviour of natural
responses of source-free RC and RL circuits
Energy Storage Elements :
• Capacitor and Inductor
Energy Storage Elements: Capacitor
• A capacitor is a passive element that stores energy
in its electric field.
• It consists of two conducting plates separated by an
insulator.
• Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of
a capacitor to the voltage difference between the
q
two plates C
• Measured in farads (F) v
• A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
• The voltage on a capacitor cannot
change abruptly.
Energy Storage Elements: Capacitor
• The capacitance value depends on the physical
dimensions of the capacitor:
A
C
d
• Current voltage relationship of the capacitor
t
dv 1
ic C vc idt v(t0 )
dt C t0
• Energy stored in the capacitor
1 2
wc Cv
2
Series and Parallel Capacitors
• Series connection of capacitors
• Parallel connection of capacitors
Energy Storage Elements: Inductor
• An inductor is a passive element that stores energy
in its magnetic field.
• It consists of a coil of conducting wire.
• Inductance is the property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing
through it.
• Measured in henrys (H)
• An inductor acts like a short
circuit to dc.
• The current through an inductor
cannot change instantaneously.
Energy Storage Elements: Inductor
• The inductance value depends on the physical
dimensions and construction of the inductor:
N 2 A
L where is the permeability of the core
• Current voltage relationship of the inductor
t
di 1
vL L iL v(t )dt i (t0 )
dt L t0
• Energy stored in the inductor
1 2
wL Li
2
Series and Parallel Inductors
• Series connection of inductors
• Parallel connection of inductors
Energy Storage Elements: Summary
Series and Parallel Capacitor/Inductors
Exercise 1
Find equivalent capacitance, Ceq for circuit below.
Series and Parallel Capacitor/Inductors
Exercise 2
Find equivalent inductance, Leq for circuit below.
Source free RC circuits :
• Natural response
Source free RC circuits
• Source free RC circuit occurs when its DC source is
suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the capacitor is
released to the resistors.
A source free RC circuit
Source free RC circuits
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-
order differential equation.
By KCL
dv v
iC iR 0 C 0
dt R
Capacitor law Ohm law
• Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage laws to circuit above
results in algebraic equations.
• Apply the laws to RC circuits to produce differential
equations.
Source free RC circuits
• Voltage response of the RC circuit is solved below:
dv v dv v
C 0 or 0
dt R dt RC
• This is a 1st order differential equation (only 1st
derivative of v is involved:
dv 1
dt
v RC
• Integrating both sides
t v t
ln v ln A becomes ln
RC A RC
• Taking power of e (V0 is initial voltage at t =0)
v(t ) Ae t RC or v(t ) V0 e t RC
Source free RC circuits
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the
behavior (i.e voltages & currents) of the circuit
itself, with no external sources of excitation.
Time constant RC
Decays more slowly
Decays faster
• The time constant of a circuit is the time required for
the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its
initial value.
• v decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
Source free RC circuits
• The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is
finding:
v (t ) V0 e t / where RC
1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant = RC.
Source free RC circuits
Example 1
Refer to RC circuit below. Let vc(0) = 30 V. For t 0,
determine vc , vx , io , and wc
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 1
• Since the voltage across capacitor cannot change
instantly, the voltage across capacitor at t = 0 - is
the same at t = 0:
vc (0) V0 30V
• Solve for the time constant
ReqC
• Find Req to solve for
Req 12 // 6 8 12
1
12 4s
3
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 1 (cont…)
• Now solve for vc and wc
t t 4 0.25t
vc (t ) vc (0)e 30e 30e
1 2 1 1
wc (0) Cvc (0) 30 150 J
2
2 2 3
• Now solve for vx and io
t 4 0.25t 0.25t
vx (t ) v x (0)e 30 e 10e
48
v8 t 20 0.25t 0.25t
io (t ) e e 2.5e
8 8
Source free RC circuits
Example 2
If the switch opens at t = 0, find v(t) and wc(0) for t 0
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 2
• Voltage across capacitor at t = 0- is the same at t = 0.
To calculate v(0), capacitor is open (due to dc
source) 12 // 4 3
vc (0) 24 24 8V
6 (12 // 4) 63
RforCthe time constant
• Solve
eq
Req R12
• Find 4 3
// solve
eq to for
1
3 0.5s
6
Source free RC circuits
Solution for Example 2 (cont…)
• Now solve for vc and wc
t t 0.5 2 t
vc (t ) vc (0)e 8e 8e
1 2 1 1 2
wc (0) Cvc (0) 8 5.33J
2 2 6
Source free RC circuits
Exercise 3
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i) , vc(t), wc(0)and iR(t) for t 0
ii) Value of vc at t = 3 sec.
t=0
10 5 iR
+
20 V
+ 1 7
_ 2 12
F VC
_
Source free RC circuits
Exercise 4
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i) , vc(t), wc(0)and iR(t) for t 0
ii) Value of vc at t = 4 sec.
t=0
iR
5 5
+
+ 10 10 1
VC
15 V _ F
5
_
Source free RL circuits :
• Natural Response
Source free RL circuits
• A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor L (or
its equivalent) and a resistor (or its equivalent)
By KVL
di
vL vR 0 L iR 0
dt
Inductors law Ohms law
• Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage laws to circuit above.
• Apply the laws to RL circuits to produce
differential equations.
Source free RL circuits
• Current response of the RL circuit is solved below:
di di R
L iR 0 or i0
dt dt L
• This is a 1st order differential equation (only 1st
derivative of i is involved: i (t ) t
di R di R
i
dt
L
I0
i
dt
0
L
• After Integrating both sides
Rt i (t ) Rt
ln i(t) ln I 0 0 or ln
L I0 L
• Taking power of e (V0 is initial voltage at t =0)
i (t ) I 0 e Rt L
Source free RL circuits
A general form representing a RL
t /
i (t ) I 0 e
L
where
R
• The time constant of a circuit is the time required for
the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its
initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
Source free RL circuits
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit
A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit
L
i (t ) I 0 e t /
where v(t ) V0 e t / where RC
R
Source free RL circuits
• The key to working with a source-free RL circuit is
finding:
t / L
i (t ) I 0 e where
R
1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant = L/R.
Source free RL circuits
Example 3
If the switch opens at t = 0, find iL(t) and wL(0) for t 0
2 3H
25 V
+ 6 6
_
Source free RL circuits
Solution for Example 3
• Current through inductor at t = 0- is the same at t = 0.
To calculate i(0), inductor is open (due to dc source)
6 // 6 1 3 1
iL (0) 25 25 2.5 A
2 (6 // 6) 6 23 6
• Solve for the time constant
L Req
• Find Req to solve for 2
Req 6 6 12
3H
6 6 6 6
3 / 12 0.25s 25 V
Source free RL circuits
Solution for Example 3 (cont…)
• Now solve for iL and wL
t t 0.25 4 t
iL (t ) iL (0)e 2.5e 2.5e
1 2 1
wL (0) Lic (0) 3 2.5 9.375 J
2
2 2
Source free RL circuits
Exercise 5
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i) , iL(t), wL(0)and iR(t) for t 0
ii) Value of iL at t = 5 sec.
t=0
iL(t) 5H
15 A 5 10 5
10
Source free RL circuits
Exercise 6
If the switch opens at t = 0, find :
i), iL(t), wL(0)and iR(t) for t 0
ii) Value of iL at t = 5 sec.
t=0
iL(t)
10 15 A 10 5 5H
First Order Circuits:Lesson Outcomes
• Understand the concept of singularity
functions and relate with application in
electric circuits
• Formulate the step response of an RC and RL
circuits
Unit step function
Unit Step Function
• Unit step function is one type of singularity function,
useful in circuit analysis.
• It can be used as a good approximation to the
switching signals.
• Three most widely used singularity functions are unit
step, unit impulse and unit ramp functions.
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for
negative values of t and 1 for
positive values of t.
0, t 0
• In mathematical terms: u (t )
1, t 0
Unit Step Function
• Below are the images for delayed unit step
function (a) and advanced (b) by t0
0, t t0 0, t t0
u (t t0 ) u (t t0 )
1, t t0 1, t t0
Step Response of an RC circuit
Step Response of an RC circuit
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when
the excitation is the step function (a voltage or a
current source).
• In other words, it is the response of the circuit due to
a sudden application of dc voltage or current source.
• For finding the step response of an RC circuit, we
break the v(t) into natural response and forced
response:
Complete response = natural response + forced response
stored energy independent source
Step Response of an RC circuit
• In mathematical form:
v vn v f
• Where vn V0 e t
v f Vs (1 e t )
• A forced response is produced by the circuit when an
external force is applied.
• A natural response refers to the behavior of the
circuit itself with no external source of excitation.
• The natural response eventually dies out along with
the transient component of the forced response.
Step Response of an RC circuit
• Expending the equation for complete response:
v vn v f
t t
v V0 e Vs (1 e )
V0 e t Vs Vs e t
t t
Vs V0 e Vs e
t t
Vs (V0 Vs )e v() (v(0) v())e
• If the switch changes position at time, t = t0 (with
time delay), the response becomes:
( t t 0 )
v(t ) v() (V0 (t0 ) v())e
Step Response of an RC circuit
Example 4
Refer to RC circuit below. Assume the switch has
been open for a long time and is closed at t =0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5 s
2 6
+ _
+
_ 10 V v 1/3 F 5V
+
_
Step Response of an RC circuit
Solution for Example 4
For t < 0, switch is closed. Capacitor act as o/c.
v (0-) = 10 V = v(0).
At t = 0, switch is closed.
= ReqC = (2//6)*1/3 = 3/2*1/3 = 0.5 s
v() =
2 6
+ _
+
_ 10 V v 1/3 F 5V +
_
Step Response of an RL circuit
Conclusion
• Nodal
The End