Presentation Slides

for
Chapter 8
of
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling
2nd Edition
Mark Z. Jacobson
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305-4020
jacobson@[Link]
March 10, 2005
 Reynolds Stress
Stress
Force per unit area (e.g. N m-2 or kg m-1 s-2)
Reynolds stress
Stress that causes a parcel of air to deform during turbulent motion of air

Fig. 8.1. Deformation by vertical momentum flux w ′u ′

Stress from vertical transfer of turbulent u- Eddy Force arising

momentum (8.1) mixing from w'u'

τ zx = −ρ a w ′u ′
z
y
zx = stress acting in x-direction, along a plane (x-y) normal to the z-direction

x
 Momentum Fluxes
Magnitude of Reynolds stress at ground surface (8.2)
⎡ 2 2 ⎤1 2
τ z = ρ a ⎢(w ′u ′) + (w ′v ′ ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Kinematic vertical turbulent momentum flux (m2 s-2) (8.3)
τ zx
w ′u ′ = −
ρa
τ zy
w ′v ′ = −
ρa
Friction wind speed (m s-1) (8.8)
Scaling param. for surface-layer vert. flux of horiz. momentum

14
⎡ 2 2⎤ 12
u* = ⎢(w ′ u′ ) + (w ′v ′ ) ⎥ = ( τz ρ a )
⎣ s s⎦ s
 Heat and Moisture Fluxes
Vertical turbulent sensible-heat flux (W m-2) (8.4)
H f = ρ a c p,d w ′θ ′v

Kinematic vert. turbulent sensible-heat flux (m K s-1) (8.5)

Hf
w ′θ ′v =
ρ a c p,d
Vertical turbulent water vapor flux (kg m-2 s-1) (8.6)
E f = ρa w ′q ′v

Kinematic vert. turbulent moisture flux (m kg s-1 kg-1) (8.7)

Ef
w ′q ′v =
ρa
Surf. Roughness Length for Momentum
Height above surface at which mean wind extrapolates to zero

• Longer roughness length --> greater turbulence

• Exactly smooth surface, roughness length = 0

• Approximately 1/30 the height of the average roughness element protruding from the surface
Surf. Roughness Length for Momentum
Method of calculating roughness length
1) Find wind speeds at many heights when wind is strong
2) Plot speeds on ln (height) vs. wind speed diagram
3) Extrapolate wind speed to altitude at which speed equals zero

ln z
ln z

ln z 0,m

0 Fig. 6.5
0 |vh|
 Roughness Length for Momentum
Over smooth ocean with slow wind (8.9)
νa ηa
z0,m ≈ 0.11 = 0.11
u* ρ a u*
Over rough ocean, fast wind (Charnock relation) (8.10)
u*2
z0,m ≈ α c
g
Over urban areas containing structures (8.11)
ho So
z0,m ≈ 0.5
Ao
Over a vegetation canopy (8.12)

z0,m = hc (1 − 0.91e −0.0075LT )

Roughness Length for Momentum
Surface Type z0,m (m) h
c
(m) d
c
(m)
Smooth sea 0.00001
Rough sea 0.000015-
0.0015
Ice 0.00001
Snow 0.00005-0.0001
Level desert 0.0003
Short grass 0.03-0.01 0.02-0.1
Long grass 0.04-0.1 0.25-1.0
Savannah 0.4 8 4.8
Agricultural crops 0.04-0.2 0.4-2 0.27-1.3
Orchard 0.5-1.0 5-10 3.3-6.7
Broadleaf evergreen forest 4.8 35 26.3
Broadleaf deciduous trees 2.7 20 15
Broad- and needleleaf trees 2.8 20 15
Needleleaf-evergreen trees 2.4 17 12.8
Needleleaf deciduous trees 2.4 17 12.8
Short vegetation/C4 grassland 0.12 1 0.75
Broadleaf shrubs w/ bare soil 0.06 0.5 0.38
Agriculture/C3 grassland 0.12 1 0.75
2500 m2 l ot w/ a b uilding 8-m 0.26 8
high and 160 m2 silhouette
25,000 m2 lot w/ a building 80-m 5.1 80
high and 3200 m2 silhouette
Table 8.1
Roughness Length for Energy, Moisture
Surface roughness length for energy (8.13)
Dh
z0,h =
ku*
Surface roughness length for moisture (8.13)
Dv
z0,v =
ku*
Molecular thermal diffusion coefficient (8.14)
κa
Dh =
ρ a c p,m
Molecular diffusion coefficient of water vapor (8.14)
T 1.94 ⎛1013.25 hPa ⎞
⎛ ⎞
Dv = 2.11 × 10−5 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝273.15 K ⎠ ⎝ p a ⎠
 Turbulence Description
Turbulence
Group of eddies of different size. Eddies range in size from a couple of millimeters to the size of the boundary layer.

Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE)

Mean kinetic energy per unit mass associated with eddies in turbulent flow

Dissipation Conversion of turbulence into heat by

molecular viscosity

Inertial cascade
Decrease in eddy size from large eddy to small eddy to zero due to dissipation
 Turbulence Models
Kolmogorov scale (8.15)
⎛ ν 3 ⎞1 4
ηk = ⎜ a ⎟
⎝εd ⎠
Reynolds-averaged models
Resolution greater than a few hundred meters
Do not resolve large or small eddies

Large-eddy simulation models Resolution between a few meters and a

few hundred meters Resolve large eddies but not small ones

Direct numerical simulation models Resolution on the order of the Kolmogorov scale
Resolve all eddies
 Kinematic Vertical Momentum Flux
Bulk aerodynamic formulae (8.16-7)
Diffusion coefficient accounts for
Skin drag: drag from molecular diffusion of air at surface
Form drag: drag arising when wind hits large obstacles
Wave drag: drag from momentum transfer due to gravity waves

( w ′u ′ )s = −C D v h ( zr ) [u ( zr ) − u (z0,m ) ]

( w ′v ′ ) s = −C D vh ( zr ) [v ( zr ) − v ( z0,m )]
 Kinematic Vertical Momentum Flux
Bulk aerodynamic formulae (8.18)
( w ′u ′ )s = −C D v h ( zr ) [u ( zr ) − u (z0,m ) ]
K-theory (8.18)
∂u
( w ′u ′ )s = −K m,zx
∂z
Wind speed gradient (8.19)

∂u u (zr ) − u ( z0,m )
=
∂z zr − z0,m

Eddy diffusion coef. in terms of bulk aero. formulae (8.20)

K m,zx = K m,zy ≈ C D v h ( zr ) ( zr − z0,m )

 Kinematic Vertical Energy Flux
Bulk aerodynamic formulae (8.21)
( w ′θ ′v ) s = −C H vh (zr ) [ θv ( zr ) − θ v (z0,h ) ]
K-theory (8.23)
∂ θv
( w ′θ ′v ) s = − K h,zz
∂z
Potential virtual temperature gradient (8.24)
∂ θv θv ( zr ) − θv ( z0,h )
=
∂z zr − z0,h

Eddy diffusion coef. in terms of bulk aero. formulae (8.25)

K h,zz ≈ CH v h ( zr ) ( zr − z0,h )
 Vertical Turbulent Moisture Flux
Bulk aero. kinematic vertical turbulent moisture flux (8.26)

( w ′q ′v ) s = −C E vh ( zr ) [ q v (zr ) − q v ( z0,v ) ]

CE≈CH --> Kv,zz =Kh,zz

 Similarity Theory
• Variables are first combined into a dimensionless group.

• Experiment are conducted to obtain values for each variable in the group in relation to each other.

• The dimensionless group, as a whole, is then fitted, as a function of some parameter, with an empirical equation.

• The experiment is repeated. Usually, equations obtained from later experiments are similar to those from the first experiment.

• The relationship between the dimensionless group and the empirical equation is a similarity relationship.

• Similarity theory applied to the surface layer is Monin-Obukhov or surface-layer similarity theory.
 Similarity Relationship
Dimensionless wind shear (8.28)
φm z ∂ vh
=
k u* ∂z
Dimensionless wind shear from field data (8.29)
⎧ z z
1+ β m >0 stable
⎪ L L
⎪
⎪⎛ z ⎞ −1 4 z
φm = ⎨⎜1 − γ m ⎟ <0 unstable
⎪⎝ L⎠ L
⎪ z
⎪1 L
=0 neutral
⎩
Integrate (8.28) from z0,m to zr (8.30)
k v h ( zr )
u* = z dz
r
∫z 0,m φm z
Integral of Dimensionless Wind Shear
Integral of the dimensionless wind shear (8.31)
zr dz
∫ z0, m φm z =
⎧ zr βm z
⎪ln z +
L
( zr − z0,m )
L
>0 stable
⎪ 0,m
⎪ 1 4 z
14
⎛ 0,m ⎞
⎪ ⎛⎜1 − γ zr ⎞ 1 − γ ⎟ −1
m ⎟ −1 ⎜ m
L ⎠
⎪ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝
⎪ln 14 − ln 14
⎪ ⎛ zr ⎞ ⎛ z0,m ⎞
⎨ ⎜⎝1 − γ m ⎟ ⎠
+1 ⎜1 − γ m ⎟ +1
⎪ L ⎝ L ⎠
⎪ 14 14
⎪+2 tan −1 ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z 0,m ⎞ z
⎜1 − γ m r ⎟ − 2 tan −1 ⎜1 − γ m ⎟ <0 unstable
⎪ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ L
⎪
⎪ln zr z
=0 neutral
⎪
⎩ z0,m L
 Monin-Obukhov Length
Height proportional to the height above the surface at which buoyant production of turbulence first equals
mechanical (shear) production of turbulence. (8.32)

u3* θ vu2* θv
L=− =
kg( w ′θ ′v ) kgθ*
s

Kinematic vertical energy flux (8.33)

( w ′θ ′v ) s ≈ −u*θ*
 Potential Temperature Scale
Dimensionless temperature gradient (8.34)
φh z ∂θv
≈
k θ* ∂z

Parameterization of * (8.35)

⎧ z z
Pr + β >0 stable
⎪ t h L L
⎪
⎪ ⎛ z ⎞−1 2 z
φh = ⎨Prt ⎜1− γ h ⎟ <0 unstable
⎪ ⎝ L⎠ L
⎪ z
⎪Prt =0 neutral
⎩ L
 Potential Temperature Scale

Turbulent Prandtl number

K m,zx
Prt =
K h,zz

Integrate (8.23) from z0,m to zr (8.37)

k [ θv ( zr ) − θv ( z0,h )]
φh z ∂θv θ* =
≈ zr dz
k θ* ∂z
∫z 0,h φh z
Integral of Dimensionless Temp. Grad.
Integral of dimensionless temperature gradient (8.38)
zr dz
∫z0, h
φh
z
=

⎧ zr βh z
⎪Prt ln z +
L
(zr − z0,h )
L
>0 stable
⎪ 0,h
⎪
⎪ ⎡ 12 z0,h ⎞1 2 ⎤
⎛
⎪ ⎢ ⎜1 − γ r ⎟ − 1 z ⎞ ⎛
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ h ⎜1 − γh ⎟ − 1⎥
L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥ z
⎨Prt ⎢ln 12 − ln 12 ⎥ <0 unstable
⎪ ⎛ zr ⎞ ⎛ z0,h ⎞ L
⎪ ⎢ ⎝⎢ ⎜ 1 − γ h ⎟ + 1 ⎜1 −γh ⎟ + 1⎥
L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥
⎪ ⎣ ⎦
⎪
⎪ zr z
⎪Prt ln z L
=0 neutral
⎩ 0,h
 Equations to Solve Simultaneously
Solution requires iteration

k v h ( zr ) u3* θ v u2* θv
u* = z dz L=− =
r kg( w ′θ ′v ) kgθ*
∫z 0,m φm z s

k [ θv ( zr ) − θv ( z0,h )]
θ* = zr dz
∫z 0,h φh z
 Noniterative Parameterization
Friction wind speed (8.40)
k v h ( zr )
u* ≈ Gm
ln( zr z0,m )

Potential temperature scale (8.40)

k 2 vh ( zr ) [θ v (z r ) − θ v ( z0,h )]
θ* ≈ 2 Gh
u* Prt ln (zr z0,m )
 Scale Parameterization
Potential temperature scale (8.41)
9.4Ri b
Gm = 1− Ri b ≤ 0
2 0.5
70k ( Ri b zr z0,m )
1+
ln 2 ( zr z0,m )
9.4Ri b
Gh = 1− 0.5 Ri b ≤ 0
50k 2 ( Ri b zr z0,m )
1+
ln2 ( zr z0,m )
1
Gm ,Gh = 2
Ri b > 0
(1+ 4.7Ri b )
 Bulk Richardson Number
Ratio of buoyancy to mechanical shear (8.39)

2
g[ θv ( zr ) − θv ( z0,h )]( zr − z0,m )
Ri b =
2 2
θv ( z0,h )[u ( zr ) + v ( zr ) ](zr − z0,h )
 Gradient Richardson Number
(8.42) g ∂θv
θv ∂z
Ri g = 2 2
⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂v ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠
Table 8.2. Vertical air flow characteristics for different Rib or Rig
Value of Type of Level of Turbulence Level of
Rib or Rig Flow Due to Buoyancy Turbulence
Due to Shear
Large, negative Turbulent Large Small
Small, negative Turbulent Small Large
Small positive Turbulent None (weak stable) Large
Large positive Laminar None (strong stable) Small
 Gradient Richardson Number
g ∂θv
(8.42) θv ∂z
Ri g = 2 2
∂u
⎛ ⎞ ∂v
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠

Laminar flow becomes turbulent when Rig decreases to less than the critical Richardson number (Ric) = 0.25

Turbulent flow becomes laminar when Rig increase to greater than the termination Richardson number (RiT) = 1.0
 Similarity Theory Turbulent Fluxes
Friction wind speed (8.8)
⎡ 2 2 ⎤1 4
u* = ⎢(w ′ u′ ) + (w ′v ′ ) ⎥
⎣ s s⎦

Bulk aerodynamic kinematic momentum flux (8.16)

( w ′u ′ )s = −C D v h ( zr ) [u ( zr ) − u (z0,m ) ]
Friction wind speed (8.43)
u* = v h ( zr ) C D

Rederive momentum flux in terms of similarity theory (8.43)

2
u*
( w ′u ′ )s = − u (zr )
v h ( zr )
Eddy Diff. Coef. for Mom. Similarity
K-theory kinematic turbulent momentum fluxes (8.18)
∂u ∂v
( w ′u ′ )s = −K m,zx ( w ′v ′ ) s = −K m,zy
∂z ∂z

Similarity theory kinematic turbulent fluxes (8.44)

u2* u*2
( w ′u ′ )s = − u (zr ) ( w ′v ′ ) s = − v (zr )
v h ( zr ) vh (zr )

Combine the two (8.46)

u*2
K m,zx = K m,zy ≈ ( zr − z0,m )
vh ( z r )
 z0,m = 0.01
Example Problem
z0,h = 0.0001 m
Prt = 0.95
k = 0.4
u(zr)=10 m s-1 v(zr)= 5 m s-1
v(zr)= 285 K v(z0,h)= 288 K

---> vh ( zr ) = 11.18 m s-1 ---> Rib = -8.15 x 10-3

---> Gm = 1.046 ---> Gh = 1.052
---> u* = 0.662 m s-1 ---> θ* = -0.188 K
---> L = -169 m
2
u*
---> K m,zx = ( zr − z0,m ) = 0.39 m2 s-1
vh ( zr )
u* θ*
---> K h,zz = = 0.41 m2 s-1 ---> K m,zx K h,zz = 0.95
(∂θ v ∂z)
Eddy Diff. Coef. for Mom. Similarity
Dimensionless wind shear (8.28)
φm z ∂ vh
=
k u* ∂z
Wind shear (8.46)
2
u*
K m,zx ≈ ( zr − z0,m )
vh ( z r )

Combine expressions above (8.48)

kzu*
K m,zx = K m,zy ≈
φm
kz = mixing length: average distance an eddy travels before exchanging momentum with surrounding eddies
Energy Flux from Similarity Theory
Vertical kinematic energy flux (8.49)

( w ′θ ′v ) s = −u*θ*

Surface vertical turbulent sensible heat flux (8.53)

H f ≈ ρ a c p,d ( w ′θ ′v ) = −ρ a c p,d u*θ *

s
Energy, Moisture Fluxes from Similarity
Vertical kinematic water vapor flux (8.49)

( w ′q ′v ) s = −u*q *
Surface vertical turbulent water vapor flux (8.53)
E f = ρa ( w ′q ′v ) = −ρ a u* q*
s
Dimensionless specific humidity gradient (8.51)
φq z ∂q v
=
k q * ∂z
Specific humidity scale (8.52)
k[ q v (zr ) − q v ( z0,v )]
q* =
z r φ dz
∫z 0,v h
z
 Logarithmic Wind Profile
Dimensionless wind shear (8.28)
φm z ∂ vh
=
k u* ∂z

Rewrite (8.57)
∂ vh ( z) u* u*
= φm = [1 − (1− φm )]
∂z kz kz

Integrate --> surface layer vertical wind speed profile (8.59)

u* ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎤
vh ( z) = ⎢ln⎜ ⎟ − ψm⎥
k ⎢⎣ ⎝ z0,m ⎠ ⎥⎦
 Logarithmic Wind Profile
Influence function for momentum (8.61,2)
z dz
ψm = ∫ (1− φm )
z 0,m z
⎧ βm z
⎪− L ( z − z0,m ) L
>0 stable
⎪
⎪ −2 −1 2
[1 + φm (z ) ][1+ φm ( z) ]
⎪ln
⎪ ⎡ −2 ⎤⎡ −1 ⎤2
= ⎨ ⎢1 + φm (z0,m ) ⎥⎢1 + φm (z0,m ) ⎥
⎪ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
⎪ −1 −1 −1 −1 z
⎪−2 tan [ φm ( z)] + 2 tan [ φm ( z0,m )] <0 unstable
L
⎪
⎪0 z
⎪ =0 neutral
⎩ L
 Logarithmic Wind Profile
Neutral conditions --> logarithmic wind profile (8.64)
u* z
vh ( z) = ln
k z0,m
Logarithmic wind profiles when u* = 1 m s-1.
10

8
Height above surface (m)

Height above surface (m) z =1.0 m z =0.1 m

0, m 0, m

0 2 4 6 8

-1
10 12
Fig. 8.3
Wind speed (m s )
Potential Virtual Temperature Profile
Dimensionless potential temperature gradient (8.34)
φh z ∂θv
≈
k θ* ∂z

Rewrite (8.58)
∂ θv θ * θ*
= φh = [1 − (1− φh )]
∂z kz kz

Integrate --> potential virtual temperature profile (8.60)

θ* ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎤
θ v ( z) = θv ( z0,h ) + Prt ⎢ln ⎜ ⎟ − ψh⎥
k ⎢⎣ ⎝ z0,h ⎠ ⎥⎦
Potential Virtual Temperature Profile
Influence function for energy (8.61,3)

z dz
ψh = ∫ (1 − φh )
z0 ,h z

⎧ 1 βh z
⎪− ( z − z0,h ) >0 stable
Pr L L
⎪ t
⎪
⎪ 1 + φh ( z) −1 z
= ⎨2 ln −1 <0 unstable
⎪ 1 + φh ( z0,h ) L
⎪
⎪0 z
⎪ =0 neutral
⎩ L
 Vertical Profiles in a Canopy
Relationship among dc, hc, and z0,m
ln z0,m

ln z

Top of canopy
ln h c
ln(d c +z 0,m )
ln d c

0
0 |vh| Fig. 8.4
 Vertical Profiles in a Canopy
Momentum (8.66)
u* ⎡ ⎛z − d ⎞ ⎛ z − d ⎞ ⎤
vh ( z ) = ⎢ln⎜ c −ψ ⎜ c ⎟⎥
⎟ m
k z
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0,m ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎥⎦

Potential virtual temperature (8.67)

θ* ⎡ ⎛ z − dc ⎞ ⎛ z − dc ⎞⎤
θ v ( z) = θv ( dc + z0,h ) + Prt ⎢ln⎜ ⎟− ψ h ⎜ ⎟⎥
k ⎢⎣ ⎝ z0,h ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎥⎦

Specific humidity (8.68)

q* ⎡ ⎛z − d ⎞ ⎛ z − d ⎞ ⎤
q v ( z) = q v (d c + z0,v ) + Prt ⎢ln⎜ c −ψ ⎜ c ⎟⎥
⎟ h
k ⎢⎣ ⎝ z0,v ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎥⎦
Local v. Nonlocal Closure Above Surface
Local closure turbulence scheme
Mixes momentum, energy, chemicals between adjacent layers.

Hybrid
E-
E-d

Nonlocal closure turbulence scheme

Mixes variables among all layers simultaneously

Free-convective plume scheme

 Hybrid Scheme
For momentum for stable/weakly unstable conditions (8.70)
Captures small eddies but not large eddies due to free convection --> not valid when Ri b is large and negative

Δu 2 Δv 2 Ri − Ri
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
K m,zx ≈ K m,zy ≈ λ2e ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ c b
⎝ Δz ⎠ ⎝ Δz ⎠ Ri c
Mixing Length (8.71)
kz
λe =
1 + kz λ m
For energy

K h,zz ≈ K m,zx Prt

 E (TKE)- Scheme
Prognostic equation for TKE (8.72)
∂E ∂ ⎛ ∂E ⎞
− ⎜sq λ e 2E ⎟ = Ps + Pb − ε d
∂t ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠

Prognositc equation for mixing length (8.73)

⎡ 2
∂( 2Eλ e ) ∂ ⎛ ∂( 2Eλ e ) ⎞ ⎛λe ⎞ ⎤
− ⎜s l λ e 2 E ⎟ = λ ee1 (Ps + Pb ) − λ eε d ⎢1+ e2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
∂t ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ kz ⎠ ⎥⎦

Production rate of shear (8.74)

⎡⎛ ∂u ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂v ⎞2 ⎤
Ps = K m ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ⎥⎦
 E- Scheme
Production rate of buoyancy (8.75)
g ∂θ v
Pb = − Kh
θv ∂z

Dissipation rate of TKE (8.76)

(2E )3 2
εd =
B1λ e

Diffusion coefficients (8.77)

K m = SM λ e 2E K h = Sh λ e 2E
 E-d TKE
Prognostic equation for dissipation rate (8.88)
∂ε d ∂ ⎛ K m ∂ε d ⎞ εd ε 2d
− ⎜ ⎟ = c ε1 ( Ps + Pb ) − cε 2
∂t ∂z ⎝ σ ε ∂z ⎠ E E

Eddy diffusion coefficient for momentum (8.89)

E2
K m = cμ
εd

Diagnostic equation for mixing length (8.90)

E32
34
λ e = cμ
εd
 Heat Conduction Equation
Heat conduction equation (8.91)
∂Ts 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Ts ⎞
= ⎜κ s ⎟
∂t ρ g cG ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
Thermal conductivity of soil-water-air mixture (8.92)
⎛ − log 10 ψ p − 2.7 ⎞
κ s = max⎜418e , 0.172⎟
⎝ ⎠
Moisture potential
Potential energy required to extract water from capillary and adhesive forces in the soil (8.93)

⎛ wg,s ⎞ b
ψ p = ψ p,s ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ wg ⎠
 Heat Conduction Equation
Density x specific heat of soil-water-air mixture (8.94)

ρ g cG = (1− wg,s )ρs c S + w g ρ wc W

Rate of change of soil water content (8.95)

∂w g ∂ ⎡ ⎛ ∂ψ p ⎞⎤ ∂ ⎛ ∂w g ⎞
= ⎢K g ⎜ + 1⎟⎥ = ⎜Dg + Kg ⎟
∂t ∂z ⎣ ⎝ ∂z ⎠⎦ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
Hydraulic conductivity of soil
Coefficient of permeability of liquid through soil (8.96)

2b+3
⎛ wg ⎞
K g = K g,s ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ w g,s ⎠
 Heat Conduction Equation
Diffusion coefficient of water in soil (8.97)

b+ 3 b+2
∂ψ p bK g,s ψ p,s ⎛ w g ⎞ bK g,s ψ p,s ⎛ w g ⎞
Dg = K g =− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
∂w g wg ⎝ w g,s ⎠ w g,s ⎝ w g,s ⎠
 Heat Conduction Equation
Rate of change of ground surface temperature (8.98)

∂Ts 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Ts ⎞
= ⎜κ s + Fn,g − H f − Le E f ⎟
∂t ρ g cG ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠

Rate of change of moisture content at the surface (8.99)

∂w g ∂ ⎛ ∂w g E f − Pg ⎞
= ⎜Dg + Kg + ⎟
∂t ∂z ⎝ ∂z ρ w ⎠

Surface energy balance equation (8.103)

∂Ts
κ s,1 + Fn,g − H f − L eE f = 0
∂z
Temp and Moisture in Vegetated Soil
Surface energy balance equation (8.103)
∂Ts
κ s,1 + Fn,g − H f − L eE f = 0
∂z

Surface irradiance (8.104)

F n,g = fs Fs + Fi ↓ −ε s σ BTg4

Vertical turbulent sensible heat flux (8.105)

ρa c p,d ⎡ Tg ⎤ ρa c p,d ⎡Taf Tg ⎤
H f = − fs ⎢θ p ( zr ) − ⎥ − fv ⎢ − ⎥
Ra ⎢ ⎣ Pg ⎥⎦ Rf ⎢⎣ P f Pg ⎥⎦
 Temp and Moisture in Vegetated Soil
Vertical turbulent latent heat flux (8.106)
ρa ρa
Le E f = − fs Le β g [q v ( zr ) − qv,s (Tg )] − fv Le β g [q af − q v,s ( Tg )]
Ra Rf

Temperature of air in foliage (8.109)

Taf = 0.3Ta ( zr ) + 0.6T f + 0.1Tg

Specific humidity of air in foliage (8.110)

q af = 0.3q v (zr ) + 0.6q f + 0.1q g

 Foliage Temperature
Iterative equation for foliage temperature (8.115)
⎡ ε vε s 4⎤
F
⎢ s + ε F
v i ↓ + σ T
εv + εs − εvεs B g ⎥
fv ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ε v + 2ε s − ε v ε s 4 ⎥
−
⎢ ε +ε −ε ε ε σ
v B fT ⎥
⎣ v s v s ⎦

= Hv + Le Ed + Le Et

Sensible heat flux (8.116)

ρa c p,d
Hv = −1.1LT [Taf − T f ]
R fPf
 Foliage Temperature
Direct evaporation (8.117)
ρa β d
Ed = −LT [ q af − q v,s (T f )]
Rf
Transpiration (8.118)
ρ a (1 − β d )
Et = − LT [ q af − q v,s ( T f )]
R f + Rst
Evaporation function (8.119)
⎧⎛ 23
Wc ⎞
⎪
⎪⎜ ⎟ q af < q v,s ( T f )
β d = ⎨⎝Wc,max ⎠
⎪
⎩1
⎪ q af ≥ q v,s ( T f )
 Foliage Temperature
⎧ ⎡ εvεs 4 ⎤ ⎫
(8.122) ⎪ ⎢ s v i F + ε F ↓ + σ T ⎪
ε v + ε s − ε v ε s B g,t −h ⎥
⎪fv ⎢ ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ε v + 2ε s − ε v ε s 4 ⎥ ⎪
+3
⎪ ⎢ ε +ε −ε ε ε σ T
v B f,t,n ⎪
⎣ v s v s
⎥⎦
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ρa c p,d ⎧
⎪β d ρa βt ⎫ ⎪⎪
⎪
⎨+1.1LT Taf + Le LT ρa ⎨ + ⎬⎬
⎪ Rf P f ⎪
⎩R f R f + Rst ⎪ ⎭⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎡ ⎧ dq v,s ( T f ,t,n ) ⎫⎤ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪× ⎢q af − ⎨q v,s ( T f ,t,n ) − T f ,t,n ⎬⎥ ⎪
⎪⎢ ⎣ ⎪
⎩
dT ⎪⎥
⎭⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
T f ,t,n+1 =
⎧ ε v + 2ε s − ε v ε s 3 ρa c p,d ⎫
4
⎪ ε + ε −ε ε ε σ T
v B f ,t,n + 1.1L T ⎪
⎪ v s v s R f P f ⎪
⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎧ ⎫ dq
⎪β d ρa (1 − β d ) ⎪ v,s ( f ,t,n ) ⎪ T
+L L
⎪ e T a⎨ ρ + ⎬ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎩ R f R f + R st ⎪
⎭ dT ⎭
 Temperature of Vegetated Soil
⎧ ρa c p,d ⎡ Tg,t,n−1 ⎤ ⎫
(8.125) ⎪f ⎢θ p (zr ) − ⎥ ⎪
s R Pg ⎥
⎪ a ⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ρa c p,d ⎡Taf ,t Tg,t,n−1 ⎤ ⎪
⎪ fv R ⎢ − ⎥ ⎪
f ⎢ ⎣ f P P g ⎥ ⎦
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ρ L ⎪
⎪ fs a e β g [ qv (zr ) − q v,s ( Tg,t,n−1 )]⎪
⎨ Ra ⎬
⎪ ⎪
ρ L
⎪ fv a e β g q af − q v,s ( Tg,t,n−1 ) ⎪
⎪ Rf [ ] ⎪
⎪ ⎪
4
⎪ fs Fs + Fi ↓ −σ Bε s Tg,t,n−1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪κ s,1 ⎪
⎪ D (T1,t − Tg,t,n−1 ) ⎪
⎩ 1 ⎭
Tg,t,n = Tg,t,n−1 + ρa c p,d ρa c p,d 3 κ s,1
fs + fv + 4ε s σ B Tg,t,n−1 +
Ra Pg R f Pg D1
 Modeled/Measured Temperatures
70

Foliage air
Sandy loam

Foliage
Lodi (LOD)
Ground
C)

o
Air above canopy
50

Temperature (

30

10

0 24 48 72 96

Hour after first midnight

Fig. 8.5
 Modeled/Measured Temperatures
10

Sandy loam
Foliage air

5
Foliage minus clay loam
C)
Ground
o Lodi (LOD)

-5
Temperature
( (

-10

-15

-20

0 24 48 72 96

Hour after first midnight

Fig. 8.5
 Modeled/Measured Temperatures
50

C)
Predicted
o
40 Lodi (LOD)

Measured

30

erature (
20

10

0 24 48 72 96

Hour after first midnight

Fig. 8.5
 Road Temperature
(8.128)
⎧ρa c p,d ⎡ Tg,t,n−1 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢θ p ( zr ) − ⎥ ⎪
⎪ Ra ⎢⎣ Pg ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ρa Le
⎪ β d [ q v (zr ) − q v,s ( Tg,t,n−1 )]⎪
⎪
⎨ Ra ⎬
⎪ 4 ⎪
⎪Fs + Fi ↓ −σ B ε as Tg,t,n−1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪κ as (T1,c,t − Tg,t,n−1 ) ⎪
⎪
⎩ D1 ⎪
⎭
Tg,t,n = Tg,t,n−1 + ρ c
a p,d 3 κ as
+ 4 ε asσ B Tg,t,n−1 +
Ra Pg D1
 Temperatures of Soils and Surfaces
70

Silt loam Clay

Loam Road
60

Silt clay loam Roof

C)

o
Ground temperature Fremont (FRE)
50

40
Temperature (

30

20

10
0 24 48 72 96

Hour after first midnight

Fig. 8.5
 Modeled/Measured Temperatures
50

C)
Predicted Fremont (FRE)
o 40

Measured

30

mperature (

20

10

0 24 48 72 96

Hour after first midnight

Fig. 8.5
 Snow Depth
Ds,t(8.129)
= Ds,t −h + hPs
⎧ q (z ) − q min T , T ⎫
⎪ [ v r v,s ( ( g,t s,m ))]⎪
fs
⎧ ρa c p,d ⎡ Ts,m ⎤ ⎫
⎪ Ra ⎪
⎪⎪− fs ⎢θ p (zr ) − ⎥ ⎪
ρa ⎪
+h ⎨ ⎬⎪ R a ⎢ ⎣ Pg ⎥ ⎦ ⎪
ρsn ⎪
[ q af − q v,s ( min( Tg,t , Ts,m ))] ⎪⎪ ⎡
ρa c p,d Taf ,t Ts,m ⎤
⎪
⎪+ fv ⎪⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ − ⎢ − ⎥
⎩ Rf ⎭⎪ fv R f ⎢⎣ P f Pg ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ρa Ls ⎪
⎪
⎨− fs [ q (
v r z ) − q ( T
v,s s,m ] ) ⎬
⎪ Ra ⎪
⎪ ρa Ls ⎪
⎪− fv [q af − q v,s ( Ts,m )] ⎪
⎪ R f ⎪
⎪ 4 κ sn ⎪
⎪− fs Fs − Fi ↓ +σ B ε sn Ts,m − (T1,t − Ts,m )⎪
⎪ D1 ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
+h
ρ sn Lm
 Water Temperature
(8.130)

⎧ρ c Tg,t− h ⎤ ⎫
a p,d ⎡
⎪ ⎢θ p ( zr ) − ⎥ ⎪
⎪ Ra ⎢ ⎣ Pg ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ρ a Le ⎪
⎨ [ q v (zr ) − q v,s ( Tg,t − h )] ⎬
⎪ Ra ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 4 ⎪
⎪Fs + Fi ↓ −σ B ε w Tg,t −h ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
Tg,t = Tg,t −h + h
ρ sw c p,sw Dl
 Sea Ice Temperature
(8.131) ⎧ρa c p,d ⎡ Tg,t,n−1 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢θ p ( zr ) − ⎥ ⎪
⎪ Ra ⎢⎣ Pg ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ρa L s q ( z ) − q ( T ) ⎪
⎪ [ v r v,s g,t,n−1 ]⎪
R
⎪ a ⎪
⎨ ⎬
⎪ 4 ⎪
⎪Fs + Fi ↓ −σ B ε i Tg,t,n−1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ κ ⎪
⎪ i ( Ti, f − Tg,t,n−1 ) ⎪
⎪
⎩Di,t −h ⎪
⎭
Tg,t,n = Tg,t,n−1 +
ρa c p,d 3 κi
+ 4ε i Tg,t,n−1 +
Ra Pg Di,t− h
 Temperature of Snow Over Sea Ice
Tg,t,n = Tg,t,n−1 +
(8.134)

⎧ρ c ⎫
a p,d ⎡ Tg,t,n−1 ⎤
⎪ ⎢θ p ( zr ) − ⎥ ⎪
⎪ Ra ⎢⎣ Pg ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ρa Ls ⎪
⎪ [q (
v rz ) − q ( T
v,s g,t,n −1 ] ) ⎪
⎨ Ra ⎬
⎪ 4 ⎪
⎪Fs + Fi ↓ −σ B ε snTg,t,n −1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ κ κ
sn i
( Ti, f − Tg,t,n−1 )⎪
⎪
⎩κ sn Di,t− h + κ i Ds,t− h ⎪
⎭
ρa c p,d 3 κ snκ i
+ 4ε sn Tg,t,n−1 +
Ra Pg κ sn Di,t −h + κ i Ds,t −h