Reservoir Management

and
Evaluation

Formation Evaluation
 Concept of Formation Evaluation
 Well Logging
 Tools Used in Logging
 Interpretation of Well Logs

Abdollah Esmaeili
Khazar University
WELL LOG (The Bore Hole Image)

What is well Logging

Well log is a continuous record of measurement made in bore hole
respond to variation in some physical properties of rocks through which the
bore hole is drilled.
Traditionally Logs are display on girded papers shown in figure.
Now a days the log may be taken as films, images, and in digital format.
HISTORY
 1912 Conrad Schlumberger give the idea of using electrical measurements to map subsurface rock bodies.
 in 1919 Conrad Schlumberger and his brother Marcel begin work on well logs.
 The first electrical resistivity well log was taken in France, in 1927.
 The instrument which was use for this purpose is called SONDE, the sond was stopped at periodic intervals in bore hole and the
and resistivity was plotted on graph paper.
 In 1929 the electrical resistivity logs are introduce on commercial scale in Venezuela, USA and Russia
 For correlation and identification of Hydrocarbon bearing strata.
 The photographic – film recorder was developed in 1936 the curves were SN,LN AND LAT
 The dip meter log were developed in 1930
 The Gamma Ray and Neutron Log were begin in 1941
LOGGING UNITS
 Logging service companies utilize a variety of
logging units, depending on the location
(onshore or offshore) and requirements of the
logging run. Each unit will contain the
following components:

 logging cable
 winch to raise and lower the cable in the well
 self-contained 120-volt AC generator
 set of surface control panels
 set of downhole tools (sondes and cartridges)
 digital recording system
Work Flow Chart
 depth to lithological boundaries

 lithology identification

 minerals grade/quality

 inter-borehole correlation

 structure mapping

 dip determination

 rock strength

 in-situ stress orientation

 fracture frequency

 porosity

 fluid salinity
Depth Of Investigation Of Logging Tools
 GAMMA RAY LOG

 Gamma Rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves which are emitted by atomic
nuclei as a form of radiation
 Gamma ray log is measurement of natural radioactivity in formation verses depth.
 It measures the radiation emitting.
 It is also known as shale log.
 GR log reflects shale or clay content.
 Clean formations have low radioactivity level.
 Correlation between wells,
 Determination of bed boundaries,
 Evaluation of shale content within a formation,
 Mineral analysis,
 Depth control for log tie-ins, side-wall coring, or perforating.
 Particularly useful for defining shale beds when the sp is featureless
 GR log can be run in both open and cased hole
 Spontaneous Potential Log (SP)

 The spontaneous potential (SP) curve records the

naturally occurring electrical potential (voltage)
produced by the interaction of formation
connate water, conductive drilling fluid, and
shale
 The SP curve reflects a difference in the
electrical potential between a movable electrode
in the borehole and a fixed reference electrode at
the surface
 Though the SP is used primarily as a lithology
indicator and as a correlation tool, it has other
uses as well:
 permeability indicator,
 shale volume indicator
 porosity indicator, and
 measurement of Rw (hence formation water
salinity).
 Neutron Logging

 The Neutron Log is primarily used to evaluate formation

porosity, but the fact that it is really just a hydrogen
detector should always be kept in mind
 It is used to detect gas in certain situations, exploiting the
lower hydrogen density, or hydrogen index
 The Neutron Log can be summarized as the continuous
measurement of the induced radiation produced by the
bombardment of that formation with a neutron source
contained in the logging tool which sources emit fast
neutrons that are eventually slowed by collisions with
hydrogen atoms until they are captured (think of a billiard
ball metaphor where the similar size of the particles is a
factor). The capture results in the emission of a secondary
gamma ray; some tools, especially older ones, detect the
capture gamma ray (neutron-gamma log). Other tools
detect intermediate (epithermal) neutrons or slow
(thermal) neutrons (both referred to as neutron-neutron
logs). Modern neutron tools most commonly count
thermal neutrons with an He-3 type detector.
The Density Log

 The formation density log is a porosity log that measures electron density of a
formation

 Dense formations absorb many gamma rays, while low-density formations

absorb fewer. Thus, high-count rates at the detectors indicate low-density
formations, whereas low count rates at the detectors indicate high-density
formations.

 Therefore, scattered gamma rays reaching the detector is an indication of

formation Density.
Scale and units:

The most frequently used scales are a range of 2.0 to 3.0 gm/cc or 1.95 to
2.95 gm/cc across two tracks.

A density derived porosity curve is sometimes present in tracks #2 and #3

along with the bulk density (rb) and correction (Dr) curves. Track #1
contains a gamma ray log and caliper.
Resistivity Log

 Basics about the Resistivity:

 Resistivity measures the electric properties of the formation,

 Resistivity is measured as, R in W per m,
 Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity,
 The ability to conduct electric current depends upon:
 The Volume of water,
 The Temperature of the formation,
 The Salinity of the formation

The Resistivity Log:

Resistivity logs measure the ability of rocks
to
conduct electrical current and are scaled in units
of ohm-
meters.
The Usage:
Resistivity logs are electric logs which are
used to:

Determine Hydrocarbon versus Water-bearing

zones,
Indicate Permeable zones,
Determine Resisitivity Porosity.
Acoustic Log

 Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in

subsurface formations. While the acoustic log can
be used to determine porosity in consolidated
formations, it is also valuable in other applications,
such as:

 Indicating lithology (using the ratio of

compressional velocity over shear velocity),
 Determining integrated travel time (an important
tool for seismic/wellbore correlation),
 Correlation with other wells
 Detecting fractures and evaluating secondary
porosity,
 Evaluating cement bonds between casing, and
formation,
 Detecting over-pressure,
 Determining mechanical properties (in combination
with the density log), and
 Determining acoustic impedance (in combination
with the density log).
Formation Evaluation
 Formation Density Log Determination of Porosity
Porosit
y%

Ρb, Bulk Density g/cc

Typical hydrocarbon/water contact on resistivity log

Ro
 FORMATION EVALUATION FROM WELL LOGS
Shaliness:

Determined from Gamma-ray log. Not reliably interpreted from SP

in impervious strata or in thin beds.

Establish 0%, 50%, and 100% shale lines on the GR log. SS

and LS intervals above the 50% cutoff are shaly. Rattiness of the GR
log to the left or right of the 50% line indicates thin beds of SS & LS
respectively. These beds are too thin for accurate log resolution but
Are still very real! Shaly sands and carbonates (>40%) are generally
worthless reservoirs despite their “apparent” porosity.

Formation Factor (F) – needed for Sw calculation

Ways to calculate F:

F = Ro/Rw use only in clean, water-bearing formations having

little clay or hydrocarbons. Formula has limited value or accuracy
throughout an actual field or large area. Cannot be used when
evaluating multiple reservoirs. Note: R0 = bed resistivity 100%
water saturated and Rw = resistivity of formation water.

F = a/Φm Archie equation or modification there-of (best)

a = tortuosity constant dependent on rock texture

(grain size, sorting, cementation, etc). Use 1 for
carbonates and .81 for most sandstones.
m = cementation factor (1.4 to 1.7 slightly cemented;
1.8 to1.9 moderately cemented, 2.0 to 2.2 highly
cemented). Use 2 for carbonates and sandstone.

Therefore: for sandstone use F = .81/Ø2

for limestone use F = 1/Ø2
Water / hydrocarbon saturation determination:

Can be interpreted from:

SP log – difficult, incorporates too many variables. All rock factors being equal, the SP is diminished in
hydrocarbon -filled reservoirs as compared to when filled with water.

Cores – often a bad choice since permeable rocks will be flushed during drilling thereby distorting values badly.

Formula – Best, most accurate, and easy to use in all rock types and saturation conditions. Uses “hard” numbers
instead of guesses and extrapolated values.

Sw = FRw
Rt

solving for Rw: Rw = Sw2Rt

F

Using this method, find a nearby well (usually low to production) that has good reservoir characteristics but is
decidedly wet. This zone will have the lowest resistivity for the particular reservoir of interest and will obviously be
dry. It can safely and accurately be assumed that Sw in this interval is between 95%-100% and obviously, even an
error of a few % will not result in large error in calculation of Rw. From the same well and zone, Rt and F can
accurately be determined from well logs to calculate Rw.

Then, use the SW formula (above) with the calculated Rw to determine hydrocarbon saturation in the same reservoir
throughout the field.
Determining water/hydrocarbon saturation, continued

Alternatively, find an interval of the same rock type stratigraphically close to the
reservoir of interest that has unusually low resistivity compared to know pay
zones in the field area. These zones may have residual hydrocarbons but the
presumed water saturation is still high and probably in the range of 85-90% (or
higher).

Using this presumed water saturation, back-calculate Rw and then use the Sw
formula to determine water/hydrocarbon saturations.

Another useful formula but of limited value is below:

Sw = Ro
Rt

Its use should be limited to beds having similar reservoir characteristics

(texture, sorting, cementation, porosity), and similar formation water salinity.
These conditions obviously do not often occur in nature so the formula is
appropriate only for a thick, relatively homogenous reservoir having oil
saturation above a water column.
Detecting a Depleted Gas Reservoir
When cross-plot porosity exceeds 10-12 porosity units, pressure depletion can be
presumed
GR & SP % Porosity
30 20 10 0 8-10 porosity
units
separation =
normal
pressured
reservoir (gas
effect)

14-16 porosity
units of separation
= pressure
depletion!
 Determination of Permeability (K)
1. From cores – usually the best method but cores are few and far-between!
Permeability measurements are expressed in millidarcys - md (one thousandth of a darcy). It is affected by
many formation attributes such as pressure, rock texture, and fluid content. For convenience, It is measured
in the lab by passing inert gas such as helium or nitrogen through samples. The resulting flow is converted
to values relevant to common air (KA). Because this data is often unrealistic, it is frequently converted into
units that more accurately relate to liquid permeability (pure water). Note that the viscosity of water is
similar to that of many oils. This “liquid” permeability is then called “Klinkenberg” permeability or K K. KA
is generally quite inaccurate in tight reservoirs but closely approximates K K in reservoirs having > a few
hundred md.
2. Pressure decline testing (cannot do on a well-by-well basis or for multiple reservoirs) conveniently.
3. Porosity vs. Permeability Plot. Very good – see examples provided. Need to get only one or two cores in the
nearby area having reliable density-neutron log suites. You can then input any porosity value into the plot to
get a good value of permeability.
4. Interpreted quantitatively from micrologs, conventional resistivity logs (noting separation between the
shallow and deep measurements), and from the caliper log (which measures mudcake buildup that is a
function of permeability).
5. From porosity and Swi (irreducible water saturation) This method is not easy to complete accurately using
standard log suites. Swi is very, very sensitive to porosity, reservoir texture, oil viscosity, and just having a bad
day in the office! I personally have not used it successfully and do not recommend its use.
6. From SP logs. A very good qualitative method of estimating reservoir permeability. Limitations include bed
thickness, fluid content, and resistive bounding strata.
Porosity vs. Permeability Plots from core. This is perhaps the best way to determine
permeability in the same formation in nearby wells having a reliable porosity suite
Example 1.1. Calculation of Porosity from
Gravimetric Data

The dimensions of a cylindrical core sample are

10.16 cm long and 3.81 cm in diameter after it
was thoroughly cleaned and dried. The dried
core sample weighed 365.0 g. The core sample
was then completely (100%) saturated with
brine that has specific gravity of 1.04. The
weight of the saturated core sample is 390.0 g.
Calculate the porosity of the core sample.
Example 1.2. Calculation of Porosity from
Density Logs

The bulk density of a clean, sandy interval

saturated with water was measured by the
density logging tool to be 2.4 g/cm3. Assuming
that the density of the formation water is 1.04
g/cm3 and the density of the matrix is 2.67
g/cm3, calculate the density porosity of this
interval.
Example 1.3. Calculation of Porosity from Sonic
Logs

The transit time for a well-consolidated

sandstone interval saturated with brine was
measured to be 82 x 10–6 sec/ft. The matrix
transit time is 55.5 x 10–6 sec/ft and the brine
transit time is 189 x 10–6 sec/ft. Calculate the
sonic porosity for the interval.
THANK YOU