METAL CASTING PROCESSES

1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Two Categories of
Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to

remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries are limited by the need
to open the mold

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Overview of Sand Casting

 Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel,
and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large
 Production quantities from one to millions

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Sand casting for an
industrial pump. Holes
and surfaces have been
machined (courtesy of
George E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology Laboratory,
Lehigh University)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold

2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties

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 Making the Sand Mold

 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing

sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Sand Casting Production
Sequence

 Production sequence in sand casting, including

pattern-making and mold-making

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 The Pattern

 Full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts
longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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 Types of Patterns

 Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid

pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate pattern, (d)
cope and drag pattern

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 Core

 Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part

 Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets

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 Core in Mold

 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets,

(b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting

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 Desirable Mold Properties

 Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion

 Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
 Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
 Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?

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 Foundry Sand

 Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

 Good refractory properties - for high temperatures
 Small grain size for better surface finish on part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing
gases to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking reduces
permeability

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 Binders Used with
Foundry Sand

 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and

bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture
to increase strength and/or permeability

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Types of Sand Mold

 Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water

 “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
 Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
 Mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Buoyancy in a
Sand Casting Operation

 During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends

to displace the core, which can cause casting to be
defective
 Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid
less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm - Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Other Expendable Mold
Processes

 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shell Molding

 Casting process in
which the mold is a
thin shell of sand held
together by
thermosetting resin
 Steps: (1) A metal
pattern is heated and
placed over a box
containing sand mixed
with TS resin

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (2) Box is inverted so

that sand and resin
fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a
layer of the mixture to
partially cure on the
surface to form a
hard shell

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 Steps in Shell Molding

 (3) Box is
repositioned so
loose uncured
particles drop
away

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 Steps in Shell Molding

 (4) Sand shell is

heated in oven for
several minutes to
complete curing

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 Steps in Shell Molding

 (5) shell mold

is stripped
from pattern

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 Steps in Shell Molding

 (6) Two halves of the shell

mold are assembled,
supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Shell Molding

 (7) Finished casting

with sprue removed

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shell Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages

 Advantages:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities

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 Vacuum Molding

 Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure

rather than by a chemical binder
 The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather
than casting operation itself
 Developed in Japan around 1970

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Vacuum Molding: Advantages
and Disadvantages

 Advantages:
 Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
 Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
done when binders are used
 Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are avoided
 Disadvantages:
 Slow process
 Not readily adaptable to mechanization

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

 Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene

foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold
process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

 (1) Polystyrene
foam pattern is
coated with
refractory
compound

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

 (2) Foam pattern is

placed in mold box,
and sand is
compacted around
the pattern

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

 (3) Molten metal is poured

into the portion of the
pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue
 As the metal enters the
mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead
of the advancing liquid,
thus filling the mold cavity

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Expanded Polystyrene Process:
Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

 Pattern need not be removed from the mold
 Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two
mold halves are not required as in a conventional
green-sand mold
 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

 Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting
operation

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Aluminum engine head produced by
expanded polystyrene casting process

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Investment Casting
(a.k.a. Lost Wax Process)

 A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make the mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition
of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process
 Capable of producing castings of high accuracy
and intricate detail

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (1) Wax patterns are

produced
 (2) Several patterns
are attached to a
sprue to form a
pattern tree

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (3) Pattern tree is

coated with a thin
layer of refractory
material
 (4) Full mold is
formed by covering
the coated tree with
sufficient refractory
material to make it
rigid

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (5) Mold is held in an

inverted position and
heated to melt the
wax and permit it to
drip out of the cavity
 (6) Mold is preheated
to a high temperature,
the molten metal is
poured, and it
solidifies

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in Investment Casting

 (7) Mold is broken

away from the finished
casting and the parts
are separated from
the sprue

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 One-piece compressor stator with 108
separate airfoils made by investment
casting (courtesy of Alcoa Howmet)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 This is a net shape process - additional machining
is not normally required
 Disadvantages:
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Plaster Mold Casting

 Similar to sand casting except mold is made of

plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed
to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Plaster Mold Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture
 Moisture can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures
 Limited to lower melting point alloys

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Ceramic Mold Casting

 Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is

made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
 Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
 Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
 Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Permanent Mold
Casting Processes

 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:

 A new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 Processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 The Basic Permanent Mold
Process

 Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys
are commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (1) Mold is preheated and coated for lubrication and

heat dissipation

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (2) Cores (if any

are used) are
inserted and
mold is closed

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (3) Molten metal is

poured into the mold,
where it solidifies

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

 (4) Mold is opened

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Permanent Mold Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of permanent mold casting:

 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a
finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Applications and Metals for
Permanent Mold Casting

 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron
 Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Die Casting

 A permanent mold casting process in which molten

metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Die Casting Machines

 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects

liquid metal under high pressure into the die
 High production rates
 500 parts per hour not uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting-point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 Hot-chamber die
casting cycle: (1)
with die closed
and plunger
withdrawn,
molten metal
flows into the
chamber

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (2) plunger forces

metal in chamber to
flow into die,
maintaining pressure
during cooling and
solidification.

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

 (3) Plunger is
withdrawn, die is
opened, and
casting is ejected

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Machine

 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
 Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on
low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is

poured into the chamber

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining

pressure during cooling and solidification

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

 (3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is

ejected

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Molds for Die Casting

 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to
prevent sticking

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
A die casting that
measures about 400
mm diagonally for a
truck cab floor
(courtesy of
George E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections possible
 Rapid cooling means small grain size and good
strength in casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Squeeze Casting

 Combination of casting and forging in which a molten

metal is poured into a preheated lower die, and the
upper die is closed to create the mold cavity after
solidification begins
 Differs from usual closed-mold casting processes
in which die halves are closed before introduction
of the molten metal
 Compared to conventional forging, pressures are
less and finer surface details can be achieved

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Semi-Solid Metal Casting

 Family of net-shape and near net-shape processes

performed on metal alloys at temperatures between
liquidus and solidus
 Thus, the alloy is a mixture of solid and molten
metals during casting (mushy state)
 To flow properly, the mixture must consist of solid
metal globules in a liquid
 Achieved by stirring the mixture to prevent
dendrite formation

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Semi-Solid Metal Casting:
Advantages

 Complex part geometries

 Thin part walls possible
 Close tolerances
 Zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the
casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Centrifugal Casting

 A family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 True Centrifugal Casting

 Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce

a tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 True Centrifugal Casting

 Setup for true centrifugal casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Semicentrifugal Casting

 Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings

rather than tubular parts
 Molds use risers at center to supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion
where quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Semicentrifugal Casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Centrifuge Casting

 Mold is designed with part cavities located away from

axis of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Centrifuge Casting

 (a) The process and (b) one of the parts cast

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Furnaces for Casting Processes

 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

 Cupolas
 Direct fuel-fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Cupolas

 Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping

spout near base
 Used only for cast irons
 Although other furnaces are also used, the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas
 The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
any alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height
of cupola

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Cupola for
melting cast
iron

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

 Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by

natural gas fuel burners located on side of furnace
 Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper-base alloys and aluminum

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Crucible Furnaces

 Metal is melted without direct contact with burning

fuel mixture
 Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
 Container (crucible) is made of refractory material
or high-temperature steel alloy
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum
 Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Three Types of
Crucible Furnaces

 (a) Lift-out crucible, (b) stationary pot - molten metal

must be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Electric-Arc Furnaces

 Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric

arc
 High power consumption
 But electric-arc furnaces can be designed for
high melting capacity
 Used primarily for melting steel

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Induction Furnaces

 Uses alternating current passing through a coil to

develop magnetic field in metal
 Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing
action
 Since metal does not contact heating elements,
environment can be closely controlled to produce
molten metals of high quality and purity
 Common alloys: steel, cast iron, and aluminum

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Induction Furnace

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Ladles

 Two common types of ladles to transfer molten metals

to molds: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two-man ladle

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Additional Steps After
Solidification

 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Trimming

 Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,

fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Removing the Core

 If cores have been used, they must be removed

 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking the
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Surface Cleaning and Inspection

 Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise

enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Heat Treatment

 Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties

 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Casting Quality

 There are numerous opportunities for things to go

wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting processes
 Defects related to sand casting process

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 General Defects:
Misrun

 A casting that has

solidified before
completely filling
mold cavity

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 General Defects:
Cold Shut

 Two portions of metal

flow together but there
is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 General Defects:
Cold Shot

 Metal splatters during

pouring and solid
globules form and
become entrapped in
casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 General Defects:
Shrinkage Cavity

 Depression in surface
or internal void caused
by solidification
shrinkage that restricts
amount of molten
metal available in last
region to freeze

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Sand Blow

 Balloon-shaped gas
cavity caused by
release of mold
gases during pouring

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Pin Holes

 Formation of many small

gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Penetration

 When fluidity of liquid

metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold
or core, causing casting
surface to consist of a
mixture of sand grains
and metal

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Mold Shift

 A step in the cast

product at parting
line caused by
sidewise relative
displacement of
cope and drag

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Foundry Inspection Methods

 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as

misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances
have been met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Metals for Casting

 Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather

than pure metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Nonferrous

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
Cast Iron

 Most important of all casting alloys

 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of
all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),
depending on composition

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
Steel

 The mechanical properties of steel make it an

attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature is high  1650C (3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so
molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Aluminum

 Generally considered to be very castable

 Low pouring temperatures due to low melting
temperature
 Pure Aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F)
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Copper Alloys

 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper
 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Zinc Alloys

 Very castable, commonly used in die casting

 Low pouring temperatures due to low melting
temperature
 Pure zinc Tm = 419C (786F)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Product Design Considerations

 Geometric simplicity
 Although casting can be used to produce complex
part geometries, simplifying the part design
usually improves castability
 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold-making
 Reduces the need for cores
 Improves the strength of the casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Product Design Considerations

 Corners on the casting

 Sharp corners and angles should be avoided,
since they are sources of stress concentrations
and may cause hot tearing and cracks
 Generous fillets should be designed on inside
corners and sharp edges should be blended

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Product Design Considerations

 Draft Guidelines
 In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates
removal of pattern from mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting
 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in
removal of the part from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
 Similar tapers should be allowed for solid cores

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Draft

 Design change to eliminate need for using a core: (a)

original design, and (b) redesign

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Product Design Considerations

 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish

 Dimensional accuracy and finish vary significantly,
depending on process
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand
casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die
casting and investment casting

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Product Design Considerations

 Machining Allowances
 Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part features
 Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those surfaces
where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand castings
are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Example 1

 (USCS units) Caplets are used to support a sand core inside a sand mold cavity.
The design of the caplets and the manner in which they are placed in the mold
cavity surface allows each caplet to sustain a force of 8 lb. Several caplets are
located beneath the core to support it before pouring; and several other caplets are
placed above the core to resist the buoyancy force during pouring. If the volume of
the core = 120 in3, and the metal is brass, determine the minimum number of
caplets that should be placed (a) beneath the core, and (b) above the core.
 Solution: Sand density = 0.058 lb/in3. From Table 11.1, density of brass  = 0.313
lb/in3.
 (a) Wc = 120(0.058) = 6.96 lb
 Although the ratio 6.96/8 is less than 1, to be safe, 2 caplets should be used
beneath to support the weight of the core before pouring. Probably 3 or 4 caplets
would be better to achieve stability.
 (b) Wm = 120(.313) = 37.56 lb
 Fb = 37.56 - 6.96 = 30.6 lb
 A minimum of 4 caplets are required above the core to resist the buoyancy force.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Example 2

 (USCS units) A horizontal true centrifugal casting operation is performed to

make cast iron pipe. The pipes have a length = 72.0 in, outside diameter = 6.0
in, and wall thickness = 0.375 in. (a) If the rotational speed of the pipe = 750
rev/min, determine the G-factor. (b) Is the operation likely to be successful? (c)
If not, what should the rotational speed be to achieve a G-factor of 60?
 Solution: (a) Using outside wall of casting, R = 0.5(6)/12 = 0.25 ft
 v = RN/30 = (0.25)(750)/30 = 19.63 ft/sec.
 GF = v2/Rg = (19.63)2/(0.25 x 32.2) = 47.9
 (b) Since the G-factor is less than 60, the rotational speed is not sufficient, and
the operation is likely to be unsuccessful.
 (c) Using a G-factor = 60, N = (30/π)(2 x 32.2 x 60/(6/12))0.5 = 9.55(7728)0.5 =
840 rev/min

©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Example 3
 (SI units) Horizontal true centrifugal casting is used to make aluminum rings with length = 5 cm, outside diameter =
65 cm, and inside diameter = 60 cm. (a) Determine the rotational speed that will provide a G-factor = 60. (b)
Suppose that the ring were made out of steel instead of aluminum. If the rotational speed computed in part (a) were
used in the steel casting operation, determine the G-factor and (c) centrifugal force per square meter (Pa) on the
mold wall. (d) Would this rotational speed result in a successful operation? The density of steel = 7.87 g/cm3.
 Solution: (a) Use inside diameter of mold in Eq. (11.5), D = Do = 65 cm. Use g = 981 cm/s2,
 N = 30(2g x GF/D).5/ = 30(2 x 981 x 60/65).5/ = 406.4 rev/min
 (b) Rotational speed would be the same as in part (a) because mass does not enter the computation of rotational
speed. N = 406.4 rev/min
 (c) Use 5 cm ring length as basis of area calculations.
 Area of this length of mold wall A = DoL = (65 cm)(5 cm) = 1021 cm2 = 0.1021 m2
 Volume of cast metal V = (Ro2 - Ri2)(L) = ((65/2)2 - (60/2)2)(5.0) = 2454.4 cm3
 Density of steel  = 7.87 g/cm3
 Mass m = (7.87g/cm3)(2454.4 cm3) = 19,315.9 g = 19.316 kg
 v = RN/30 Use mean radius R = (65 + 60)/4 = 31.25 cm = 0.3125 m
 v = (31.25)(406.4)/30 = 1329.9 cm/s = 13.299 m/s
 Centrifugal force per square meter on mold wall = Fc/A where Fc = mv2/R
 Fc = (19.316 kg)(13.299 m/s)2/(0.3125 m) = 10,932.1 kg-m/s2
 Given that 1 N = 9.81 kg-m/s2, Fc = 10,932.1/9.81 = 1114.4 N
 Fc/A = (1114.4 N)/(0.1021 m2) = 10,914.7 N/m2 = 10,914.7 Pa
 (d) The G-factor of 60 would probably result in a successful casting operation.
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e